A Comprehensive Exploration of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Environmental Origins, Analytical Techniques, Health Implications, and Remediation Strategies

Aayushi Pathak¹, Anand Kumar¹, Ramsingh Kurrey^2,*, Sudhir Yadav¹*,

T. L. Chandra³

¹Department of Forensic Science, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh India

²National Center for Natural Resources, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University Raipur

Chhattisgarh, India

³State Forensic Science Laboratory Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India

Graphical Abstract

Figure 1. Graphical abstract

Abstract

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons represent persistent organic pollutants are pervasively distributed throughout diverse environmental matrices, encompassing air, water, soil, sediments, and biological tissues. These compounds primarily originate from incomplete combustion of organic materials, stemming from both anthropogenic and natural sources. Owing to their pronounced hydrophobic and lipophilic nature, PAHs readily accumulate in environmental and biotic compartments, thereby promoting bioaccumulation and posing potential adverse effects on ecosystems and human health. Many PAHs exhibit toxic, mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic properties, thereby eliciting substantial concerns for environmental integrity and public well-being. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of PAH sources, environmental distribution, transport processes, toxicological profiles, analytical methods, and remediation strategies, with special emphasis placed on advanced analytical techniques, including gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, high-performance liquid chromatography, and refined microextraction procedures, for the qualitative and quantitative determination of PAHs in complex matrices. Innovations such as nanotechnology-enhanced remediation, photocatalytic degradation, and bioremediation frameworks are also evaluated; moreover, existing analytical challenges, research gaps, and future directions for effective PAH surveillance and abatement are articulated.

Keywords: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; environmental contamination; toxicity; analytical methodologies; remediation; bioaccumulation.

1. Introduction

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons constitute pervasive environmental pollutants recognized as priority contaminants by the United States Environmental Protection Agency(Beygisangchin et al., 2026; Srogi, 2007). These compounds are characterized by two or more fused aromatic rings comprising solely carbon and hydrogen atoms(Patel et al., 2020). PAHs typically manifest as pale yellow to white solids, exhibiting low aqueous solubility, elevated melting and boiling points, and pronounced lipophilic and hydrophobic properties (Patel et al., 2020)..

Low-molecular-weight PAHs contain two to three aromatic rings, whereas high-molecular-weight PAHs possess four or more rings. PAHs containing six or fewer fused rings are categorized as “small,” while those with more than six rings are considered “large” (Patel et al., 2020). small PAHs have been extensively investigated because of their greater environmental abundance and easier detection in samples(Stogiannidis & Laane, 2014).

Benzene is not classified as a PAH because it contains only a single aromatic ring, whereas naphthalene is recognized as the simplest polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon consisting of two fused benzene rings(Itodo et al., 2018). Among the extensively studied PAHs are 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene and benzo[a]pyrene because of their significant toxicological importance(Beygisangchin et al., 2026).

PAHs comprise a large group of environmentally persistent organic compounds exhibiting varying degrees of toxicity(Gopinath et al., 2024). These compounds can induce carcinogenic, mutagenic, and immunosuppressive effects in living organisms (Tartaglione et al., 2023). Their toxicity is primarily associated with disruptions in cellular membranes and enzyme systems. PAHs are generated through incomplete combustion processes from both natural and anthropogenic sources, as well as certain biological activities (Gopinath et al., 2024). Consequently, they are widely distributed in environmental matrices including air, soil, and water (Honda & Suzuki, 2020).

Major anthropogenic sources of PAHs include vehicle emissions, industrial operations, power plants, agricultural activities, and steel manufacturing processes(Albinet et al., 2007). Since these sources are predominantly concentrated in urban regions, PAH concentrations are generally higher in urban environments than in rural areas. Following atmospheric release, PAHs may exist in gaseous form or adsorb onto particulate matter depending on their physicochemical properties (Chattopadhyay et al., 2002). Low-vapor-pressure PAHs preferentially associate with airborne particulate matter, whereas lighter PAHs are more commonly detected in the gaseous phase (Zhang et al., 2019) Their gas-particle partitioning is strongly influenced by vapor pressure and meteorological conditions (Shimmo et al., 2004).

Several PAH congeners are recognized for their carcinogenic, mutagenic, and toxic effects on humans and ecosystems(Contreras-Soto et al., 2019). Therefore, the development of sensitive and reliable analytical methods is essential for understanding their environmental behavior and toxicological impacts. Advanced analytical techniques, particularly chromatographic methods coupled with mass spectrometry, have significantly improved the qualitative and quantitative determination of PAHs in complex environmental matrices(Cam et al., 2000).

This review provides a comprehensive overview of PAH occurrence in various environmental matrices and discusses their environmental distribution, toxicity, analytical determination, and remediation approaches. Special emphasis is placed on chromatographic techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), including their advantages and limitations in PAH analysis (Adeniji et al., 2018). Furthermore, the review highlights bioaccumulation, biomarker responses, exposure pathways, and current challenges associated with PAH monitoring and risk assessment in environmental and biological systems.

2. Sources of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Environment

PAHs in the environment originate primarily from three major sources: pyrogenic, petrogenic, and biogenic processes involving pyrolysis (Berríos-Rolón et al., 2025), (Montano et al., 2025). Pyrogenic PAHs are generated during the incomplete combustion of organic materials at high temperatures under oxygen-deficient or anaerobic conditions (Kamal et al., 2014). Natural pyrogenic sources include forest fires, volcanic eruptions, bacterial and algal synthesis, petroleum seepage, erosion of petroleum-rich sedimentary rocks, and decomposition of plant litter. Anthropogenic sources include industrial activities, vehicular emissions, power generation, and other combustion-related processes(Hassan et al., 2025). Pyrogenic PAHs may arise from intentional processes, such as coal distillation for coke and coal tar production, or unintentionally through incomplete combustion of organic matter at temperatures ranging from 350–1200°C.

Petrogenic PAHs originate from petroleum and petroleum-derived products (Berríos-Rolón et al., 2025), whereas biogenic PAHs are synthesized naturally by organisms such as algae and phytoplankton(Berríos-Rolón et al., 2025). Pyrogenic sources predominantly produce high-molecular-weight PAHs, while petrogenic sources are generally enriched with low-molecular-weight congeners (Patel et al., 2020). These compounds are environmentally persistent pollutants formed mainly through incomplete combustion processes and are associated with carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic, and toxic effects (Muhyideen et al., 2023).

Atmospheric PAHs are transported and deposited onto soil, vegetation, and aquatic systems through wet and dry deposition processes, primarily in association with particulate matter(Zhang et al., 2018). Figure 2 illustrates the major sources and environmental pathways of PAHs. The persistence of PAHs in the environment is attributed to their low aqueous solubility, high octanol–water partition coefficients, and potential for long-range atmospheric transport(Zhang et al., 2023). Consequently, PAHs have been widely detected in sediments(Baran et al., 2017), dust(Feng et al., 2025), water bodies(Feng et al., 2025), and soils(Botello et al., 2023). Due to their hydrophobic nature, PAHs exhibit strong adsorption affinity toward soil organic matter, resulting in the accumulation of more than 90% of environmental PAH burdens in soils(Kim et al., 2019).

PAHs can absorb ultraviolet and visible radiation, leading to cellular damage involving membranes, proteins, and nucleic acids. Experimental studies have demonstrated that PAHs may disrupt endocrine functions by acting as anti-androgenic and anti-estrogenic agents, thereby affecting reproductive hormones. Their lipophilic nature facilitates bioaccumulation and cellular uptake, increasing toxicological risks in living organisms(Kummer et al., 2008).

The United States Environmental Protection Agency has identified 16 priority PAHs because of their environmental prevalence, persistence, and adverse health effects(Chen et al., 2022). Additionally, nine PAH congeners are included among the most hazardous chemicals listed by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry owing to their significant toxicological impacts(Feng et al., 2025). The International Agency for Research on Cancer classifies PAHs according to carcinogenic potential into Group 1 (carcinogenic to humans), Group 2A (probably carcinogenic), Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic), and Group 3 (not classifiable regarding carcinogenicity to humans)(Chen et al., 2022). High-molecular-weight PAHs such as benzo[a]pyrene, benz[a]anthracene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, chrysene, and indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene are frequently associated with carcinogenic activity. Table 1 summarizes the classification, abbreviations, molecular formulas, molecular weights, ring numbers, and carcinogenic classifications of major PAHs(Amato‐Lourenço et al., 2017).

 

Figure 2: Primary sources and environmental transport pathways of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

 

Table 1. Classification, abbreviations, carcinogenicity classification, molecular formula, molecular weight, and ring numbers of major polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).

PAHs	Abbreviation	IARC Classification	USEPA Classification	Chemical Formula	Molecular Weight	Number of Rings
Naphthalene	Nap	Group 2B	Group D	C10H8	128.17	2
Acenaphthylene	Acy	–	–	C12H8	152.20	3
Acenaphthene	Ace	Group 3	Group C	C12H10	154.21	3
Fluorene	Flu	–	–	C13H10	166.22	3
Phenanthrene	Phe	Group 3	Group C	C14H10	178.23	3
Anthracene	Ant	Group 3	Group C	C14H10	178.23	3
Fluoranthene	Fla	Group 3	Group C	C16H10	202.26	4
Pyrene	Pyr	Group 3	Group C	C16H10	202.26	4
Benz[a]anthracene	BaA	Group 2A	Group B2	C18H12	228.29	4
Chrysene	Chr	Group 3	Group C	C18H12	228.29	4
Benzo[b]fluoranthene	BbF	Group 2A	Group B2	C20H12	252.32	5
Benzo[k]fluoranthene	BkF	Group 2A	Group B2	C20H12	252.32	5
Benzo[a]pyrene	BaP	Group 1	Group B1	C20H12	252.32	5
Dibenz[a,h]anthracene	DahA	Group 2A	Group B2	C22H14	278.36	5
Benzo[ghi]perylene	BghiP	Group 2B	Group D	C22H14	278.36	6
Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene	IcdP	Group 2A	Group B2	C22H14	278.36	6

 

2.1 Pathways of PAH Accumulation in the Environment

Figure 3 depicts the principal routes of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon accumulation within environmental matrices. PAHs ingress into environmental compartments predominantly via atmospheric deposition, stemming from combustion activities such as biomass burning and fossil fuel utilization (Hrdina et al., 2022). Following atmospheric emission, these compounds undergo long-range atmospheric transport prior to deposition onto terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Soil contamination by PAHs occurs through industrial effluents, inadvertent spills, and atmospheric deposition(Derafshi et al., 2022). Their hydrophobic properties engender strong adsorption to soil particulates, thereby promoting persistence and protracted accumulation. In aquatic systems, PAHs are introduced via surface runoff, industrial wastewater, and atmospheric deposition(Wang et al., 2024), subsequently becoming sequestered in sediments and biota, with potential trophic magnification through food webs.

Bioaccumulation entails the progressive accrual of PAHs in organismal tissues across trophic strata(Wang et al., 2024). Primary producers, encompassing plants, algae, and microbes, assimilate PAHs from polluted soils and waters, thereby mediating transfer to higher trophic levels via trophic interactions.

PAHs are conveyed atmospherically in both vapor and particulate phases prior to deposition on terrestrial and aquatic surfaces. Over 90% of environmental PAHs are sequestered in soils and sediments owing to robust sorption to organic matter and particulates, which curtails mobility and biodegradability(Han et al., 2014). In soils, dissipation proceeds via volatilization, leaching, photo-oxidation, phytoremediation, and microbial catabolism. Within sediments, PAHs partition into interstitial water and affiliate with colloidal fractions, constituting a salient bioavailable pool. These contaminants are implicated in myriad toxicological sequelae, including mutagenicity, teratogenicity, and carcinogenicity.

A predominant mechanism of PAH assimilation in plants is radicular uptake from contaminated soils and aqueous media. PAHs initially sorb to root exteriors, traverse cellular membranes, and amass in cell walls and vacuoles (Jia et al., 2020). Studies reported modest PAH burdens in the parenchymal tissues of vegetables grown proximate to industrial zones in Greece, wherein low-molecular-weight PAHs prevailed(Tsiodra et al., 2021). PAH accrual profiles in plants are profoundly modulated by species, ambient conditions, and phenological cycles. Foliar deposition from air correlates robustly with vapor pressure and octanol-air partition coefficients (Tsiodra et al., 2021).

Terrestrial invertebrates accrue PAHs chiefly from contaminated soils, whereas aquatic biota encounter them via aqueous, sedimentary, and alimentary vectors (Séguin et al., 2022). In fauna, PAH bioaccumulation occurs via ingestion, inhalation, and transdermal routes, with prospective perturbations to immunological, reproductive, and ontogenetic processes(Séguin et al., 2022).

Notwithstanding the identification of myriad PAH congeners, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has prioritized 16 PAHs due to their toxicity and ubiquity. The enduring persistence and bioaccumulative propensity of PAHs in environmental reservoirs imperil ecological integrity and human salubrity, underscoring the imperative for source apportionment and abatement measures (Wang et al., 2024). Figure 4 delineates the ramifications of PAHs across human, faunal, and floral ecosystems (Wang et al., 2024).

Figure 3. Pathways of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon accumulation in the environment..

 

Figure 4. Three distinct sections illustrating the effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on human, animal, and plant ecosystems.

2.2 Deposition of PAHs in the Environment

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons enter the environment via diverse pathways, among which atmospheric deposition constitutes a primary mechanism (Abdel‐Shafy & Mansour, 2015). Sources such as fossil fuel combustion, industrial processes, and natural phenomena like wildfires emit PAHs into the atmosphere, facilitating their long-range transport prior to deposition on terrestrial and aquatic surfaces through both dry and wet processes. Contamination of soils and sediments can arise from atmospheric deposition, particularly in the context of forest fires (Campos & Abrantes, 2021). Due to their hydrophobic characteristics, PAHs exhibit strong adsorption to particulate matter, thereby enhancing their persistence and accumulation in the environment.

Biomass combustion, encompassing wildfires and agricultural practices, significantly contributes to atmospheric PAH emissions (Anyahara, 2021). Wet deposition entails the scavenging of PAHs by precipitation events, including rain and snow [CITE_1].

The interaction of PAHs with particulate matter during dry deposition is predominantly governed by particulate surface properties and resistance to sedimentation (Feng et al., 2017). In wet deposition, PAHs are scavenged from the atmosphere via dissolution in precipitation or adsorption to hydrosols, contingent upon their gas-particle partitioning coefficients (Cave et al., 2018). Both deposition modalities substantially contribute to PAH enrichment in soils [CITE_1].

Air-soil exchange represents a critical diffusional process influencing the environmental fate and transport of PAHs (Cabrerizo et al., 2011) Wang et al. documented seasonal fluctuations in PAH concentrations within air and soil samples from urban and rural locales in Dalian, China(Wang et al., 2008).

PAH accumulation in plants is markedly influenced by plant morphology and epicuticular characteristics. Broad-leaved species generally exhibit greater susceptibility to atmospheric deposition, while smooth, waxy surfaces preferentially retain low-molecular-weight PAHs (Al-Nasir et al., 2022). Root uptake is frequently constrained, as hydrophobic PAHs avidly sorb to soil organic matter, diminishing their bioavailability in the soil solution(Krektun et al., 2012).

Certain studies have observed elevated PAH accumulation in plants during winter relative to summer(Srogi, 2007), and attributed this to trichomes that capture atmospheric particulates(Bakker et al., 1999). The authors also reported low PAH concentrations in the parenchymal tissues of vegetables cultivated near industrial sites in Greece, with low-molecular-weight congeners prevailing(Wennrich et al., 2002). Bioaccumulation patterns in plants are substantially modulated by species, seasonal variations, and prevailing environmental conditions(Koukoulakis et al., 2020).

Air-to-foliar deposition may be quantified utilizing vapor pressure and octanol-air partition coefficients(Mamy et al., 2014). Prajapati et al. demonstrated seasonal PAH accumulation in leaves of Ficus benghalensis, peaking in winter due to thickened lipid cuticles that augment pollutant retention(Fellet et al., 2016). Leafy vegetables, such as spinach and cabbage, displayed pronounced PAH enrichment attributable to their extensive surface areas and heightened foliar exposure(Al-Nasir et al., 2022). Foliar uptake predominated over radicular uptake across multiple vegetable species(Tembo & Biswick, 2025). Moreover, fruit and vegetable peels consistently exhibited higher PAH burdens than edible pulp(Zhong & Wang, 2002).

Analogous PAH profiles have been documented in soils and foliar tissues proximate to coal mines and thermal power stations(Yakovleva & Габов, 2020). High-molecular-weight PAHs preferentially sorb to rough, pubescent, or trichome-dense leaf surfaces, whereas low-molecular-weight PAHs accumulate on glabrous or thinly cuticularized surfaces(Bakker et al., 1999). Khalili et al. identified robust correlations between soil PAH concentrations, atmospheric PAHs, and foliar accumulation in cabbage, with maxima in outer leaves and roots and minima in edible cores(Al-Nasir et al., 2022).

Figure 5 illustrates the environmental dynamics of PAHs and the analytical methodologies applied to solid and liquid environmental matrices.

Figure 5. Environmental dynamics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and analytical procedures for solid and liquid environmental samples.

 

The interaction of PAHs with environmental matrices such as sediments and biota has gained significant attention because of their widespread occurrence and potential ecological and human health impacts(Soursou et al., 2023). Sediments are considered important reservoirs of PAHs due to the strong adsorption of these hydrophobic compounds onto organic matter and particulate materials(Crnković et al., 2020).

Comparative analyses have been conducted on sediments collected from wildfire-affected and unaffected regions, including riverbanks and roadside environments, by evaluating both PAH concentrations and sediment color characteristics(Kieta et al., 2023). The findings indicated that color-based indicators were more effective than PAH concentrations for tracing sediment sources. Furthermore, wildfire events significantly influenced sediment contribution in smaller waterways, whereas these effects became less distinguishable in larger river systems(Muñoz-Arcos et al., 2021).

3. Environmental Distribution and Transport

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons represent persistent environmental contaminants (Feng et al., 2025) capable of exerting detrimental effects on ecosystems and human health at trace levels(Bourguignon et al., 2019). The International Agency for Research on Cancer classifies numerous PAHs as mutagenic, genotoxic, and carcinogenic(Maciejczyk et al., 2023). Their semi-volatility enables widespread dissemination across atmospheric, terrestrial, aquatic, and sedimentary compartments, thereby promoting inter-media transfer.

Although certain soil microbiota can metabolize PAHs (Bourguignon et al., 2019), elevated levels impair microbial assemblages and enzymatic functions(Liang et al., 2016). PAH pollution disrupts soil microbial diversity, enzymatic processes, and overall soil health, with susceptible communities proving especially prone to toxic insult(Ren et al., 2025). Consequently, microbiological metrics—such as microbial biomass and enzymatic assays—serve as reliable proxies for soil condition assessment (Zhu, 2019)

Empirical investigations reveal divergent responses of soil microbial consortia in varied forest habitats to PAH perturbation. Phenanthrene exposure elicits reactive oxygen species production, precipitating oxidative damage and cytotoxicity(He et al., 2021). Ahammed et al. observed that exogenous phenanthrene application suppressed photosynthesis, diminished photosynthetic pigments, and curtailed root and shoot biomass(Ahammed et al., 2012). Analogously, Tomar et al. noted that PAHs inhibit dark reactions of photosynthesis, indicating a reduction in CO₂ fixation rates and underscoring phytotoxicity(Tomar & Jajoo, 2019)

PAHs induce toxicological perturbations in crops like wheat by compromising photosystem II integrity(Tomar & Jajoo, 2019). Fluoranthene diminishes functional quinone-reducing sites while elevating non-functional QB-non-reducing centers, thereby curtailing photosynthetic efficacy and inflicting structural harm to the photosynthetic machinery, with consequent declines in productivity(Tomar et al., 2015).

 

Temporal dynamics modulate PAH sequestration profiles. Elevated high-molecular-weight PAH fractions, including four- and six-ring PAHs, in roots during winter reflect the more efficient absorption of high-ring PAHs from soil, which contributes to synergistic root and foliar uptake(Ailijiang et al., 2022; Desalme et al., 2013). Herbaceous flora exhibit heightened vulnerability owing to adjacency to soil dust and depositional fluxes(Ailijiang et al., 2022), with evergreens accruing higher PAH loads relative to deciduous counterparts(Dreyer et al., 2018).

PAH bioaccumulation instigates physiological duress via inhibition of metabolic cascades. These xenobiotics perturb photosystem heterogeneity, deplete chlorophyll, and provoke reactive oxygen species overproduction, thereby abrogating photosynthetic performance.(Cavé‐Radet et al., 2018). Resultant oxidative disequilibrium erodes cellular integrity and biosynthetic fluxes, while concurrently depleting safeguard antioxidants like ascorbic acid and α-tocopherol—critical for ameliorating oxidative lesions(Ruiz-Pablos et al., 2023). Moreover, alterations in carbohydrate levels disrupt cellular communication and energetics(Savchenko & Тихонов, 2021).

4. Health Effects and Toxicity

Extensive research has examined the impacts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on hematological parameters, such as red blood cell counts, hemoglobin concentrations, and hematocrit values. Exposure to mixtures comprising naphthalene, phenanthrene, and benzo[a]pyrene substantially diminished hematocrit levels in Clarias gariepinus fish(Osuagwu et al., 2023). Phenanthrene exposure likewise induced reductions in hematocrit, hemoglobin levels, and counts of red and white blood cells in yellowfin seabream(Ren et al., 2024). Investigations of housewives subjected to emissions from coal and fuel-wood combustion similarly documented changes in hemoglobin concentrations and white blood cell counts(Ren et al., 2024).

These observations indicate an inverse correlation between PAH exposure and hematological parameters, potentially compromising immune function and overall physiological well-being. Owing to their persistence and bioaccumulative properties, PAHs are recognized as major environmental contaminants that elicit toxic, mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic effects in humans and wildlife.

Surveillance of PAHs in surface waters holds particular significance, as these substances impair environmental quality and aquatic ecosystems(Srogi, 2007). PAHs exhibit notable environmental persistence and bioaccumulation in biota, thereby elevating risks of cancer, endocrine disruption, and reproductive impairments(Beygisangchin et al., 2026). Accordingly, international regulatory bodies have underscored the necessity of monitoring PAHs across environmental matrices, particularly in aquatic compartments(Wang et al., 2024).Mitigating associated risks necessitates ongoing enhancements in monitoring protocols, analytical methodologies, and regulatory frameworks tailored to distinct environmental contexts and water utilization objectives(Beygisangchin et al., 2026). Progress in analytical instrumentation and environmental monitoring initiatives has improved the identification and evaluation of PAH pollution in aquatic systems.

The creation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency in 1970, pursuant to Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations, marked a pivotal advancement in U.S. environmental protection policy. This was succeeded by the Clean Water Act of 1972, which sought to “restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation’s waters.”

Table 2. Health-related effects of PAHs and associated parameters.
Findings	Reference
HEMATOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
The levels of triglycerides, diastolic blood pressure, white blood cell count, and red blood cell count are greater in individuals with urinary indicators of PAHs.	(Li et al., 2020)
A study showed that white blood cells were negatively but non-significantly associated with both the contaminants phenanthrene and pyrene as they showed little or no effect with the exposure to petroleum and a similar observation was made for hemoglobin	(Lu et al., 2019)
The results indicate that in preschool-aged children, increasing urine concentrations of 1-OHNa and 2-OHNa are linked to higher levels of IL-1β, platelet count, PCT and PLR as well as lower levels of mean platelet volume, platelet distribution width, platelet-large cell ratio and mean platelet volume to platelet count.	(Hu et al., 2021)
It was found that elevated urinary OH-PAHs were associated with increased mean platelet volume and mean platelet volume to platelet count levels in Wuhan residents but not in Zhuhai residents, suggesting that exposure to more PAHs may cause the body's inflammatory response.	(Zhou et al., 2017)
RESPIRATORY FUNCTION
The results indicate a high exposure to mixtures of PAHs and lead, and their effects on the respiratory function of workers exposed to black fumes from the brick-kilns. The correlation results show that the workers' lung function is most impaired when they are older and have been working for a longer length of time.	(Martínez-Fernández et al., 2017)
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH AND SEMEN QUALITY
The results unequivocally show a link between male reproductive function and airborne PAHs exposure.	(Yang et al., 2010)
Research has demonstrated a correlation between elevated cadmium levels in blood and seminal plasma and aberrant semen volume, progressive motility, and morphology in the general population.	(Wang et al., 2020)
These findings showed that males who smoke are more affected by the drop in semen quality caused by naphthalene exposure, while men who never smoke are more affected by phenanthrene exposure.	(Patil et al., 2015)
CARCINOGENIC RISK
The serum of pregnant women in Nantong city was found to have a variety of carcinogenic PAHs, among which BaA warrants special attention due to its high degree of internal exposure and carcinogenic potential.	(Chen et al., 2019)
According to the findings of the current study, sensitive receptors are more exposed to particulate PAHs in the exposed area. Sensitivity analysis revealed that the most convincing factors for predicting precise carcinogenic risk from PAHs exposure were children's body weight and airborne PAHs concentrations.	(Picariello et al., 2020)
In chemical work environments, the possible exposure of employees to PAHs through skin, food, and respiratory routes was evaluated. The incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for male cancer patients indicated a moderate-to-low cancer risk associated with dust-bound PAHs exposure.	(Possanzini et al., 2004)
1-OHPG concentrations were correlated with same-day meal BaP, pyrene, and total PAHs concentrations, indicating that dietary PAHs exposure represents a significant pathway of exposure.	(Wang et al., 2008)
Elevated PAHs in Guiyu neonates are related to unregulated e-waste recycling initiatives in the neighborhood. Reduced newborn height and gestational age were observed to correspond with benzo[a]anthracene (BaA), chrysene (Chr), and benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) in infants whose birth outcomes are unfavorable.	(Wei et al., 2018)
EFFECT OF PAHS ON DNA DAMAGE
The mutagenesis process of polycyclic PAHs and their effects on the body were examined in detail, .	(Poster et al., 2006)
The results showed that compared to children living in low-traffic regions, children living near busy roads are more likely to be exposed to environmental PAHs and have a higher risk of genotoxicity. This study has enhanced the understanding of the connection between genotoxicity in children and urban traffic pollution in Southeast Asia.	(Kamboj et al., 2021)
These findings suggest that the additive interaction between exposure to environmental PAHs and Cd could enhance the burden of oxidative stress and cause oxidative DNA damage.	(Wang et al., 2018)
HEART FAILURE
Major environmental pollutants were measured in the serum of heart failure patients and compared with control samples; results showed that every factor was statistically significant.	(Tsapakis & Stephanou, 2004)
Our results provide evidence that exposure to fine particulates causes DNA damage. Furthermore, particulate PAHs could be biologically active constituents of PM2.5 regarding the induction of oxidative DNA damage.	(Lee et al., 1995)

 

5. Analytical Methodologies

The determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in environmental samples primarily entails sample collection, extraction, and preconcentration from diverse matrices. Effective extraction during the sampling phase is critical for both gaseous and particulate-bound PAHs to enable precise quantification.(Hartmann, 1996)The broad spectrum of physicochemical properties inherent to PAHs poses substantial challenges in attaining comprehensive extraction and recovery of target analytes (Nowakowski et al., 2021).

To assess extraction efficiency and validate analytical protocols, surrogate standards are routinely incorporated into sorbent materials or filters prior to sampling(Udesky et al., 2019). Isotopically labeled PAH congeners are commonly utilized as surrogate standards owing to their physicochemical properties that closely mimic those of native PAHs(Ghetu et al., 2021). Nevertheless, the post-sampling introduction of isotopically labeled standards may fail to accurately reflect the native sample matrix, especially for particulate-associated PAHs(Udesky et al., 2019). As a result, recoveries of labeled compounds may diverge from those of native analytes (Itoh et al., 2007). Although comprehensive recovery data are not uniformly documented in PAH research, numerous studies have examined extraction efficiencies applicable to both vapor and particulate phases. Table 3 delineates quality assurance metrics for vapor-phase airborne PAH analysis.

A diverse array of analytical techniques has been developed for PAH characterization, tailored to analyte properties and matrix complexity. Among these, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and high-performance liquid chromatography represent the predominant methodologies for PAH quantification. Specialized HPLC configurations, such as HPLC with diode-array detection and fluorescence detection, integrate multiple detection modalities to enhance analytical performance (Singh et al., 2019).

The diode-array detector facilitates concurrent multi-wavelength monitoring and provides detailed spectral data, while fluorescence detection augments sensitivity by leveraging the inherent fluorescence of PAHs or via derivatization (Singh et al., 2019). HPLC-FLD approaches are particularly efficacious for intricate environmental matrices due to their superior selectivity and sensitivity for fluorescent PAH species (Chen, 2012).

GC–MS provides exceptional sensitivity, resolution, and unequivocal PAH identification; however, it necessitates costly instrumentation and laborious sample preparation(Okparanma & Mouazen, 2013). Conversely, HPLC-based methods are preferentially employed for thermally labile and high-molecular-weight PAHs attributable to their versatility and minimal thermal degradation(Ehrenhauser, 2011). Thus, the judicious selection of an analytical method hinges on sample characteristics, matrix complexity, target analytes, requisite sensitivity, and laboratory infrastructure(Owsianiak et al., 2011).

In aggregate, these analytical methodologies furnish robust frameworks for the identification and quantification of PAHs across biological, industrial, and environmental matrices, thereby underpinning thorough evaluations of their prevalence, transport, and ecological ramifications.

5.1 Advanced Methodologies

Recent advancements in nanotechnology have markedly enhanced the extraction, detection, and remediation of PAHs within environmental matrices such as soil and water(Shamloo et al., 2024). Nanomaterials have proven instrumental in augmenting analytical sensitivity, selectivity, and remediation efficacy(Munyengabe et al., 2023).

Han et al. (Munyengabe et al., 2023) devised a preconcentration and extraction protocol employing graphene oxide aggregates in conjunction with sodium chloride for PAHs in aqueous matrices. This methodology yielded detection limits of 10–30 ng/L, correlation coefficients exceeding 0.99, and recoveries spanning 80–111%. Moreover, it embodied principles of green chemistry by necessitating merely 1 mL of hexane for subsequent GC–MS analysis.

An alternative innovative strategy entails the integration of silver nanoparticles into porous graphitic carbon nitride matrices. Lu et al. illustrated that this nanocomposite substantially amplified PAH detection sensitivity, exemplified by fluorene, via the surface-enhanced Raman scattering attributes of silver nanoparticles, which consequently affords nano-enabled analytical platforms superior detection sensitivity, selectivity, and reduced limits of detection for trace-level PAH analysis.

Computational chemistry has made substantial contributions to elucidating PAH environmental transformation and degradation pathways, particularly under atmospheric photooxidation (Titaley et al., 2018). Methodologies encompassing molecular mechanics, molecular dynamics, and hybrid computational paradigms yield insights into PAH interactions with environmental matrices and remediation agents(Sandoval‐Pauker et al., 2023). These computational strategies facilitate predictions of PAH transport, transformation, and environmental persistence, thereby informing the formulation of efficacious remediation and risk assessment protocols(Brimo et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2017).

Table 3. Comparative Overview of Conventional and Advanced Analytical Methodologies Used for PAH Detection and Characterization

Analytical Method	Principle	Advantages	Limitations
GC–MS (Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry)	Separation based on volatility followed by mass-based detection(Candraningrat et al., 2021)	High sensitivity, excellent selectivity, reliable identification of trace PAHs(Saldarriaga-Noreña et al., 2019)	Expensive instrumentation, extensive sample preparation(Bonner & Hopfgartner, 2022), unsuitable for thermally unstable compounds(Wang, 2020)
HPLC–UV	Separation using liquid chromatography with UV detection	Simple operation, suitable for non-volatile PAHs, relatively low cost	Lower sensitivity and selectivity compared to GC–MS
HPLC–FLD	Fluorescence-based detection of PAHs after chromatographic separation	High sensitivity and selectivity for fluorescent PAHs	Limited applicability for non-fluorescent compounds
HPLC–DAD	Simultaneous multi-wavelength spectral detection	Provides spectral information and peak confirmation	Lower sensitivity than fluorescence detection
Nanotechnology-Assisted Detection	Use of nanomaterials such as graphene oxide and silver nanoparticles	Enhanced sensitivity, lower detection limits, rapid analysis	High material cost and limited large-scale applicability
Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS)	Raman signal enhancement using metallic nanoparticles	Ultra-sensitive detection, rapid analysis, minimal sample requirement	Reproducibility challenges and nanoparticle instability
Computational Chemistry Approaches	Simulation of PAH transport and degradation pathways	Predicts environmental fate and remediation efficiency	Requires computational expertise and validation

 

 

5.2 Extraction Methodologies

5.2.1 Solvent-Based Extraction for Particle-Phase PAHs

After collecting airborne particulate-bound PAHs on filters, samples are typically extracted employing organic solvents such as hexane, dichloromethane, acetone, or methanol, either singly or in mixtures. Extraction efficacy is commonly augmented through specialized techniques, including Soxhlet extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasonication, and pressurized fluid extraction (Danlami et al., 2014)

Gustafson and Dickhut utilized acetone, petroleum ether, and dichloromethane in a Soxhlet apparatus to extract PAHs from glass fiber filter samples. Lower-molecular-weight PAHs, including naphthalene, displayed suboptimal recoveries(Ho & Yu, 2004).

 Similar extraction efficiencies across various solvent systems, including toluene and dichloromethane, were observed when assessing reference materials such as NIST Standard Reference Material 1649a(Flasch et al., 2016; Schantz et al., 2012). These methods are often utilized in Soxhlet, reflux, microwave-assisted, and ultrasonication procedures.

While solvent-based extraction yields dependable PAH recoveries, efficiency is profoundly influenced by solvent polarity, matrix complexity, and the physicochemical attributes of specific PAH congeners. A compilation of studies assessing extraction efficiencies is presented in Table 3.

5.2.2 Solvent Microextraction

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are routinely identified in environmental media, including water, soil, sediments, and air. Consequently, efficacious extraction and preconcentration strategies are imperative for monitoring, risk evaluation, and regulatory adherence. Diverse analytical platforms, such as GC–MS/MS, LC–MS/MS, and atomic absorption spectroscopy, have been devised for PAH quantification in environmental, food, and biological specimens (Akinboye & Lee, 2025)

Contemporary microextraction methods prioritize diminished solvent usage, reduced sample volumes, enhanced cleanup, and elevated enrichment factors. Rezaee et al. reported a DLLME technique utilizing a chlorinated solvent as extractant for the determination of PAHs in water samples (Pena et al., 2009).

Magnetic dispersive micro-solid-phase extraction incorporating metal-organic frameworks has been advanced for PAH detection in water, tea, and fruit matrices(P et al., 2021),(Wu et al., 2021). Additional sophisticated techniques comprise stir bar sorptive extraction, dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction, solidification of the floating organic drop, and headspace solid-phase microextraction(Jinadasa et al., 2020).

Smith et al. examined non-modified polydimethylsiloxane fibers paired with microwave-assisted heating and headspace solid-phase microextraction for PAH extraction from water(Hsieh et al., 2014). One-step extraction and cleanup via continuous-flow single-drop microextraction have likewise been established for streamlined PAH analysis(Jalili et al., 2020).

Dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction, introduced in 2006 for the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in water samples, persists as a predominant liquid-phase microextraction approach for PAHs in water (Guiñez et al., 2016). Ionic liquid-based dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction has further been applied for PAH quantification in intricate matrices like tea infusions, beef patties, and water(Germán‐Hernández et al., 2013; Martinis et al., 2017).

Microextraction offers benefits such as curtailed solvent demands, expedited extraction, substantial enrichment, and alignment with green chemistry tenets. Nevertheless, supplementary manipulation may occasionally compromise analytical precision and reproducibility. As noted by (Jinadasa et al., 2020), microextraction constitutes a pivotal progression toward innovative analytical paradigms.

 

 

5.2.3 Soxhlet Extraction

Soxhlet extraction represents a traditional, extensively adopted method for PAH recovery from solid matrices. The process commences with pulverizing the solid sample to augment surface area, followed by placement in a thimble within the Soxhlet apparatus. A suitable solvent, typically hexane or dichloromethane, is chosen based on the matrix. The solvent is heated, vaporized, condensed, and cyclically percolated through the sample over long periods. The resultant extract is collected and concentrated via solvent evaporation prior to analysis.

Soxhlet extraction delivers elevated efficiency and consistent PAH recovery; however, it is protracted, solvent-intensive, and entails extended thermal exposure(Stéphane et al., 2021).

5.2.4 Accelerated Solvent Extraction

Accelerated solvent extraction constitutes a sophisticated preparatory technique prevalent in analytical chemistry. Samples are micronized and loaded into extraction cells, subjected to heightened temperature and pressure (Sun et al., 2012). The procedure incorporates static and dynamic phases that optimize analyte solubilization and mass transfer.

Relative to traditional methods, accelerated solvent extraction provides abbreviated extraction durations, reduced solvent volumes, and superior yields(Sun et al., 2012). Extracts are gathered and concentrated before instrumental scrutiny.

5.2.5 Ultrasonic Extraction

Ultrasonic extraction harnesses ultrasonic waves to facilitate analyte liberation from environmental matrices (Albero et al., 2019). The sample is blended with an appropriate solvent and exposed to ultrasonication to enhance efficiency. Post-extraction, the liquid fraction is segregated from particulates via filtration or centrifugation, followed by concentration using rotary evaporation.

Liquid–liquid extraction serves as another prevalent approach for PAH isolation from aqueous media, entailing pH modulation and partitioning with solvents like dichloromethane (Mahgoub et al., 2016). Post-agitation and phase demarcation, the organic phase harboring PAHs is retrieved and concentrated for analysis.

Ultrasonic extraction is expeditious, straightforward, and economical; yet, efficacy fluctuates with solvent choice, duration, and matrix composition. Ultrasonic and liquid–liquid extractions remain staples for PAH assessment in environmental and biological specimens.

6. Remediation Strategies

Remediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons has emerged as a critical environmental imperative due to their persistence, toxicity, and ubiquitous presence in polluted ecosystems. A range of remediation strategies, encompassing biological, chemical, thermal, and photocatalytic methods, has been developed to mitigate PAH contamination in soils and aquatic environments(Vásquez-Murrieta et al., 2016)Bioremediation stands out as one of the most sustainable and eco-friendly methods for PAH elimination. Conventional landfarming practices, which incorporate tilling, bulking, irrigation, and fertilizer supplementation, have exhibited substantial remediation efficacy. Straube et al. documented that these techniques facilitated roughly 86% removal of high-molecular-weight PAHs over a period of 6–12 months(Ghosal et al., 2016).

Earthworm-assisted bioremediation has likewise proven effective. Contreras-Ramos et al. observed that the earthworm Eisenia fetida significantly diminished soil levels of anthracene, benzopyrene, and phenanthrene (Contreras-Ramos et al., 2007). In India, fungal strains including P. chrysogenum, M. racemosus, and L. theobromae have demonstrated PAH degradation in contaminated soils via enzymatic processes mediated by lipase-producing consortia (Venkataraman et al., 2014).

Numerous bacterial species have been recognized as proficient PAH degraders. Strains such as Rhodococcus pyridinivorans and Kocuria flava, derived from oil-polluted soils, displayed robust pyrene degradation (Krivoruchko et al., 2023). Similarly, Agaricomycetes species achieved up to 99% PAH degradation at 10 ppm concentrations (Naloka et al., 2024). Microbial remediation offers advantages including cost-effectiveness, environmental compatibility, and the capacity to mineralize PAHs into less hazardous byproducts. Nonetheless, its performance can be modulated by factors such as temperature, pH, nutrient supply, and pollutant levels.

Thermal remediation has been applied to severely contaminated sites. Incineration at 900–1200°C effectively mineralizes PAHs in contaminated soils and industrial effluents (Patel et al., 2020). While thermal processes enable swift contaminant abatement, they are energy-demanding and prone to producing secondary pollutants.

Chemical oxidation constitutes a key remediation modality. PAH remediation using sodium persulfate in conjunction with electrokinetic treatment demonstrated improved removal efficiency in laboratory experiments (Isosaari et al., 2006). Oxidants like potassium permanganate, sodium-based compounds, and ferrous ions have been employed to activate persulfate and peroxy-acids for PAH degradation in industrial slurries (Bendouz et al., 2017; Liao et al., 2018). Although chemical oxidation yields rapid contaminant breakdown, it often entails elevated costs and potential modifications to soil characteristics.

Photocatalytic degradation employing titanium dioxide has gained prominence as an advanced oxidation process. Under UV irradiation, TiO₂ effectively degrades PAHs such as benzopyrene, pyrene, and phenanthrene on soil surfaces(Marquès et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2021). This method is deemed environmentally benign owing to its promotion of degradation with minimal hazardous residue generation.

Advancements in nanotechnology have bolstered remediation outcomes. Nanoparticle-enhanced phytoremediation leverages plants alongside nanomaterials like Au, Ag, CuO, ZnO, and C₆₀ to augment contaminant uptake and translocation (El-Ramady et al., 2017; Gomes, 2025). Nanotechnological approaches yield superior efficiency, heightened adsorption, and accelerated degradation; however, nanoparticle toxicity and ecological safety warrant further scrutiny.In summary, PAH remediation strategies are advancing toward more sustainable, efficacious, and eco-compatible technologies to rehabilitate contaminated ecosystems.

Table 4. Compilation of Quality Assurance (QA) Data for the Analysis of Airborne Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the Vapor Phase

Target PAHs	Extraction Method	Pre-treatment / Sample Loading	Detection Method	Flow Rate (L/min)	Sampling Volume (L)	LOD (Absolute Mass, ng)	LOD (Concentration, ng/m3)	Precision (%RSD)	Recovery (%)	Reference
A	Soxhlet extraction with acetone, ether, and dichloromethane	DI	GC–MS	510–750	172,000	–	1.2–7.9	–	79.3–103	(Drooge et al., 2022)
A	No solvent	Thermal desorption	GC–MS	–	665,000	–	–	–	–
A	No solvent	Laser-induced fluorescence (LIF)	GC–MS	–	–	–	0.3	–	–
A	Ethylene glycol	Microwave-assisted desorption and HS-SPME (PDMS-DVB fiber)	GC–MS	1.4	420	–	0.02	4–14	80–108	(Ehrenhauser, 2011)
A	No solvent	Thermal desorption	GC–MS	–	–	–	61–77	12–25	–
A	Toluene	–	GC–MS	–	–	–	53–59	–	–
B	Soxhlet extraction with dichloromethane–methanol	DI	GC–MS	6	36	1 (CHY)–15.3 (NAP)	–	4–9	90–97	(Sun et al., 2012)
B	Soxhlet extraction with dichloromethane	DI	GC–MS	–	–	0.002–1460	–	–	78–101	(Wu et al., 2021)
C	Hexane:methylene chloride with sonication	DI	GC–FID	–	4	32	0.17–0.49	<10 (except PHE, 20)	85–115
C	Dichloromethane–methanol with ultrasonication	DI	GC–FID	4	32	–	0.17–0.49	<10 (except PHE, 20)	85–115
C	Hexane	DI	GC–MS	34	146,880	–	–	–	–
C	Dichloromethane with ultrasonication	DI	GC–MS	2.5	60	–	1–10	<5	95.1
C	Soxhlet extraction with n-hexane, acetone, and dichloromethane (2:1:1)	–	GC–MS	–	–	0.071–0.153	0.6–6.7	–	–	(Drooge et al., 2023)
C	PDMS traps	TD	GC–MS	–	–	0.026 (NAP)	0.1	12.9 (NAP)	118 (BGP)	(Carvalho et al., 2019)
D	Soxhlet extraction with hexane	DI	GC–MS	600	900,000	–	0.001	–	–
D	Soxhlet extraction with dichloromethane	DI	GC–MS	1	240–480	–	–	4.2–16 (Coefficient of variation)	–
D	Microwave-assisted methanol–acetone extraction	DI	HRGC–MS/MS	666	960,000	–	–	–	80–90	(Ehrenhauser, 2011)
D	Soxhlet extraction with dichloromethane	DI	GC–MS	–	–	0.002–59	–	–	78–101

 

Abbreviations: DI = Direct Injection; TD = Thermal Desorption; GC–MS = Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry; GC–FID = Gas Chromatography–Flame Ionization Detection; HRGC–MS/MS = High Resolution Gas Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry; HS-SPME = Headspace Solid-Phase Microextraction; PDMS-DVB = Polydimethylsiloxane–Divinylbenzene; LOD = Limit of Detection; RSD = Relative Standard Deviation.

7. Challenges and Future Perspectives

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, prominent among environmental pollutants, are ubiquitously produced through industrial, agricultural, and transportation activities, leading to pervasive contamination across diverse environmental matrices (Beygisangchin et al., 2026).

A principal challenge in PAH analysis pertains to sample preservation and preparation. Aerosol and air samples necessitate storage at subdued temperatures to avert the volatilization of semi-volatile compounds. Filters are typically segmented into smaller portions, sealed in hermetic containers, and maintained at around 4°C pending analysis (Bari et al., 2010). For gravimetric assessment, filters are routinely preserved under cryogenic conditions (Cutter et al., 2010).

Analogously, polyurethane foam plugs employed for gaseous PAH sampling demand extraction via Soxhlet or ultrasonication, followed by low-temperature storage prior to instrumental scrutiny (Peng & Lim, 2022). These traditional analytical workflows are characteristically laborious, protracted, solvent-profligate, and reliant on advanced instrumentation. Accordingly, sophisticated techniques such as gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) have emerged as the preferred modality for precise PAH quantitation.

GC–MS and allied chromatographic methods are routinely utilized for PAH quantification (Wilson, 2020). PAH extracts derived from filters and PUF plugs are conventionally examined using GC–MS systems incorporating flame ionization detection and capillary columns coated with dimethyl polysiloxane stationary phases (Wilson, 2020). Helium serves as the customary carrier gas in temperature-programmed separations (Wilson, 2020).

Air sampling protocols generally entail high-volume samplers fitted with pre-baked quartz fiber filters for particulate-phase PAHs and with PUF plugs for gaseous-phase PAHs (Ochsenkühn‐Petropoulou et al., 2002). Post-collection, filters are equilibrated under regulated conditions, gravimetrically assessed using microbalances, encased in aluminum foil, and cryopreserved until analysis.

Notwithstanding substantial progress in analytical methodologies, persistent constraints encompass matrix interferences, elaborate sample pretreatment, elevated operational expenses, and the exigency for specialized expertise. Prospective investigations should thus prioritize the development of expeditious, economical, eco-sustainable, and ultrasensitive analytical platforms for real-time PAH surveillance.

Nascent technologies, including nanotechnology-based sensors, biosensors, artificial intelligence-augmented monitoring systems, and portable analyzers, present compelling prospects for augmenting environmental monitoring and risk evaluation. Moreover, synergistic remediation paradigms integrating biological, chemical, and nanomaterial-centric strategies have the potential to optimize PAH abatement in polluted ecosystems.

Global cooperation and unified regulatory frameworks are imperative to counteract the transboundary dissemination of PAHs. Bolstering environmental statutes, refining surveillance initiatives, and fostering sustainable industrial paradigms will prove indispensable for curtailing PAH pollution and safeguarding ecological integrity and human well-being.

8. Conclusion

This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of the origins, environmental dispersion, analytical protocols, toxicological ramifications, and remediation tactics pertinent to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Both anthropogenic and biogenic sources substantially contribute to PAH dissemination in various matrices such as soil, water, air, and vegetation (Chaurasiaa et al., 2024). Predominant anthropogenic contributors comprise industrial effluents, vehicular emissions, petroleum spills, and urban stormwater runoff, while natural origins encompass volcanic activity and wildfires.

PAHs are recalcitrant organic contaminants primarily formed through incomplete combustion (Feng et al., 2025). Their lipophilic properties lead to sequestration in soils and sediments, promoting bioaccumulation and biomagnification across trophic levels. Atmospheric deposition and phytouptake further propagate PAHs into alimentary webs, imperiling biota and human populations. Elevated PAH levels are frequently documented in flora near industrial areas and high-traffic corridors.

Contemporaneous innovations in analytical instrumentation have markedly enhanced PAH detection, speciation, and quantitation within multifaceted environmental matrices (Smith et al., 2006). Modalities such as GC–MS, high-performance liquid chromatography, nanotechnology-facilitated detection, and microextraction paradigms have elevated analytical acuity and specificity. Nonetheless, impediments concerning sample pretreatment, matrix effects, fiscal burdens, and expansive monitoring endeavors endure (Hossain et al., 2026).

Diverse remediation modalities—encompassing biological, chemical, thermal, photocatalytic, and nanotechnology-mediated interventions—have shown substantial efficacy in reducing PAH contamination. Bioremediation and phytoremediation, in particular, are considered ecologically benign and cost-efficient alternatives.

Future research should focus on developing green analytical methodologies, real-time monitoring devices, hybrid remediation frameworks, and probabilistic risk assessment models to facilitate effective PAH management. Concurrently, strengthened international regulations and coordinated environmental governance are necessary to constrain PAH emissions and mitigate their ecological and public health consequences.

In summary, perpetual scientific innovation and judicious environmental stewardship will be pivotal in ameliorating PAH contamination and preserving environmental and human health.

Credit authorship contribution statement

A. Pathak: Writing – Original draft, Methodology, Data curation, Conceptualization.  R. Kurrey: Writing – review & editing, Resources, Investigation. S. Yadav: Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Validation, Supervision.   T. L. Chandra: Writing – review & editing, funding acquisition. A. Kumar:  Writing – review & editing, Validation, Investigation.

 

Data availability statement

No data were used for the research described in the article

 

Conflict of Interest

There is no conflict of interest from the authors.

 

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