Recent Advances and Applications of Nanobiotechnology: A Comprehensive Review

Deepti Tikariha Jangde¹, Anjali Sinha^2,3, Birendra Kumar³*

¹Department of Chemistry, Acharya Panth Shri Grindh Muni Naam Saheb, Govt PG College, Kawardha, Kabirdham, Chhattisgarh, 491995, India.

²Research Centre, Department of Chemistry, St. Thomas College Ruabandha, Bhilai India.

³Department of Chemistry, Govt. Rajmata Vijiyaraje Sindhiya Kanya Mahavidyalaya Kawardha, Kabirdham, Chhattisgarh, 491995, India.

*Corresponding Author: Email-birendrajangde@gmail.com

Keywords: Nanoscience, nanoscale, nanomaterials, biosurfactants, biosensors

1. INTRODUCTION

Nanobiotechnology a specialized branch of nanotechnology, integrates nanoscale tools and techniques to study biological systems and develop innovative applications in diagnostics, therapeutics, biological assessment and bio-computing (Nagamune et al., 2017). The term nanotechnology originates from the Greek word nanosmeaning dwarf, signifying the extremely small scale typically below 100 nanometer sat which this science operates (Iqbal et al., 2017).As an interdisciplinary and rapidly advancing field, nanotechnology focuses on the design, manipulation and application of materials and devices at the atomic and molecular levels (Khan et al., 2021, Bayda et al., 2020). Nanomaterials show unique physical, chemical and biological properties that differ significantly from their bulk counterparts, enabling breakthroughs across diverse scientific domains (Subramani et al., 2012). In past decades, nanobiotechnology has advanced significantly in the design and application of nanomaterials such as metallic nanoparticles, carbon-based nanostructures, liposomes and quantum dots (Rodrigues et al., 2019, Begines et al., 2020). These materials are widely applied in medicine for targeted drug delivery, diagnostics, biosensing, gene therapy, and tissue regeneration (Alcudia et al. 2020).Nanostructures are typically fabricated via two approaches: top-down, which reduces bulk materials to nanoscale dimensions, and bottom-up, which assembles structures atom by atom or molecule by molecule (Dumitru et al., 2009). In nanobiotechnology, the top-down approach supports technologies like labonachip devices, point-of-care biosensors, and solid-state nanopore sequencing (Agha et al., 2023; Roy et al., 2021). The bottom-up method facilitates the creation of hybrid systems using materials like magnetic nanoparticles, quantum dots, dendrimers, liposomes, and fullerenes applied in biosensing, bioimaging, and nanotherapeutics (Joudeh, 2022). These methods have enabled the creation of highly functional nanomaterials used in medicine, electronics, and environmental monitoring (Shyam et al., 2019).

The scope of nanotechnology extends across molecular biology, oncology, immunology, cardiology, ophthalmology and environmental science (Altammar et al., 2023).It offers promising strategies for gene delivery, tumor targeting, and the detection or remediation of environmental contaminants (Nam et al., 2019). Fluorescent polymer-coated nanospheres, for instance, have improved sensitivity in environmental monitoring systems (Guerra et al., 2018).In biomedicine, nanotechnology is revolutionizing cancer therapy by overcoming major limitations of conventional treatments, such as poor solubility, systemic toxicity, and drug resistance (Cardoso et al., 2016, Hull et al.2014).A prominent subfield, mmolecular nanotechnology combines chemistry, physics and various branches of engineering to enable atomically precise construction of nanoscale devices, with future applications in targeted drug delivery, medical nanorobots, and advanced electronics (Modi et al, 2022).Engineered nanoparticles also provide more effective, targeted drug delivery and diagnostics, reducing side effects and enhancing therapeutic precision(Mamalis et al., 2007). The evolution toward molecular manufacturing using computer-controlled nanoscale tools for atomically precise assembly represents the next frontier (Guo et al., 2011, Zamri et al. 2018). The Foresight Institute has termed this vision Zetta technology, symbolizing the future of nanoscale engineering (Dhakad et al., 2017, Gulab et al., 2019) Beyond healthcare, nanobiotechnology enhances agricultural productivity through nanoformulated fertilizers and pesticides, promoting sustainability (Nitschke et al,, 2022). Environmentally, nanomaterials help in water purification, pollutant detection, and soil remediation. Additionally, their use in food packaging, catalysis and energy systems highlights the field’s versatility and increasing relevance across industrial and environmental sphere (Anajwala et al., 2012).This review paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent advances in nanobiotechnology with an emphasis on cutting-edge innovations, emerging applications. By exploring the current landscape and future potential of this dynamic field, we aim to offer a valuable resource for scientists and industry professionals, objective to utilize nanobiotechnology for transformative societal impact.

2. Types of Nano Materials

Nanoparticles subsist in diverse forms, each possessing sharp characteristics and uses as demonstrated in Figure1. Metal Nanoparticles are particles of metals like gold, silver, and platinum typically ranging from 1to 100 nanometers in size. They display distinct optical, electronic and catalytic properties, making them useful in fields such as catalysis, sensing, and biomedical applications (Islam et al., 2020, Malik et al., 2022). Polymeric Nanoparticles composed of polymers conjugates, these nanoparticles are used for drug delivery, gene therapy, and imaging. They offer controlled release of therapeutic agents and can be tailored for specific targeting and biocompatibility (Rai et al., 2019, Elsabahy et al. 2015).Lipid Nanoparticles, Liposomes and lipid-based nanoparticlesare commonly used in drug delivery systems due to their biocompatibility and ability to encapsulate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs. They can protect drugs from degradation and enhance their bioavailability (Alavi et al., 2019, Ghasemiyeh et al., 2018). Carbonnanotubes, fullerenes, and graphene are examples of Carbon-based nanoparticles. They possess exceptional mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties, leading to applications in electronics, aerospace, energy storage, and biomedical fields (Díez-Pascual et al., 2021).Semiconductor nanoparticles have unique properties with a size-dependent bandgap. They have found applications in electronics, solar cells and biological imaging due to their tunable optical and electronic properties (Malik et al., 2023, Smith et al., 2010).Magnetic Nanoparticles typically composed of iron oxide or other magnetic materials, exhibit magnetic properties. They are used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), targeted drug delivery, hyperthermia therapy, and magnetic separation techniques (Avasthi et al., 2020, Chomoucka et al. 2010, Giustini et al., 2010, Leong et al., 2020). Quantum dots are semiconductor rnanoparticles with unique optical and electronic properties arising from quantum confinement effects (Chawre et al, 2022). They find applications in displays, lighting, biological imaging, and solar cells due to their tunable emission wavelengths and high quantum yields. The lists of various types of nanoparticles are shown in Table 1.

Fig. 1. Different types of Nanoparticles (Patel et al. 2024)

Table 1. Various types of Nanoparticles, properties and its applications

2.11 Metal Nanoparticles

Metal nanoparticles are indispensable tools in modern nanotechnology due to their extraordinary functional properties, versatile applications and tunable behaviors at the nanoscale (Sun et al. 2019).Among them, metal nanoparticles, composed of metals such as gold, silver, and platinum, typically range in size from 1 to 100 nanometers. These particles exhibit distinctive optical, electronic, and catalytic behaviors, which make them valuable in applications like catalysis, biosensing, and various biomedical uses. Metal oxide nanomaterials such as TiO₂ are considered as the best material for water splitting purposes. Researcher has investigated the hetero junction between ZnO/Fe₂O₃ and g-C₃N₄ for enhanced photocatalytic activity (Mao et al., 2019). Different inorganic nanomaterials like metal or metal oxides are preferred for remediation because of their high absorption capacity and fast kinetics. They are highly exile in aqueous solutions in both in or ex-sit conditions. For instance, silver nanoparticlesact as water disinfectants. They are commonly known as antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral agents that can detoxify certain harmful microorganisms like E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa when their diameter of 10 nm is used (Rodrigues et al., 2019). They also prevent the viruses from binding into the host cell thus protecting from viral infections. Titanium oxide has photocatalytic ability in which these can doped with other transition metals or metal oxides to enhance (Islam et al., 2020). Iron-based nanomaterials remove heavy metals and chlorinated solvents from water. It exhibits a core-shell structure that consists of zerovalent iron i.e., FeO. These core shells facilitate the remediation of heavy metals that have higher value of standard reduction potentials (Malik et al., 2022).

2.12 Carbon-Based Nano-Materials

The structural properties and mutable hybridization state make carbon-based nanomaterials different from other metal or nonmetal-based materials. Fullerenes (C₆₀), graphene and carbon nanotubes whether single-wall formulate-walled are some examples of different hybridization states of carbon. The absorption properties of porous carbon nanomaterials make them useful for organic or inorganic contaminants remediation from large aqueous mediums. The mechanisms of working of carbon-based nanoparticles depend on the photons generated by ultraviolet radiations. The photons produce valence band holes and conduction holes (e-) that lead to the formation of hydroxyl radicals useful for the removal of chlorinated organic compounds (Díez-Pascual et al., 2021). The activity and conductivity rate of TiO₂ increases when mixed with graphene. Furthermore, graphene composites of ZnOand CdS have great photocatalytic rates toward water contaminants.

2.13 Polymer-Based Nanomaterials

Polymeric nanoparticles formed from polymersare primarily used in drug delivery, gene therapy, and medical imaging (Elsabahy et al. 2015). These particles allow for controlled release of therapeutic agents and can be engineered for specific targeting and enhanced biocompatibility. Polymer-based nanomaterials are employed to enhance performance and desirable properties like strength, activity rate etc. They are also used to overcome and minimize some of the nanoparticle imitations (Begines et al., 2020). For example, amphiphilic polyurethane nanoparticles have been employed for the remediation of aromatic hydrocarbons from the soil. They not only promote the mobility of soil but hydrophobic interior confers greater tendency for organic contaminants (Alcudia et al. 2020). They remove phenanthrene from the soil to the extent of 80% recovery. Similarly, amid amine ordendrimers are utilized in wastewater management, especially for the remediation of metal ions (Rai et al., 2019). They are like chelating agents that bind with ions like Fe, Ni, Cu etc. and facilitate water purification. They are also antibacterial or antifungal agents used to target specific VOCs. They have emerged as a powerful platform in nanotechnology due to their versatility, biocompatibility, and ability to deliver therapeutic agents with high precision and controlled release.

2.14 Semiconductor nanoparticles

Semiconductor nanoparticles including quantum dots display semiconductor characteristics that vary with particle size due to their size-dependent band gap. These nanoparticles are widely used in electronics, solar energy technologies, and biological imaging, thanks to their tunable optical and electronic properties (Malik et al., 2023).Semiconductor nanoparticles, often referred to as quantum dots when they exhibit quantum confinement effects, are nanocrystals composed of semiconductor materials such as cadmium selenide (CdSe), zinc sulfide (ZnS), lead sulfide (PbS) or silicon (Si). These nanoparticles typically range from 1 to 10 nanometers in size and exhibit size-dependent optical and electronic properties, making them highly valuable in a wide range of nanotechnological applications (Smith et al., 2010).

2.15 Lipid nanoparticles

Lipid nanoparticles, such as liposomes and other lipid-based systems, are especially prominent in pharmaceutical applications (Alavi et al., 2019). Due to their ability to carry both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs, they serve as efficient drug delivery vehicles. Their biocompatibility also allows them to protect active compounds from degradation while improving bioavailability. Lipid nanoparticlesare nanoscale carriers composed primarily of lipids, typically ranging in size from 50 to 200 nanometers. These particles have gained significant attention in nanomedicine due to their biocompatibility, ability to encapsulate a wide range of drugs, and efficient delivery of therapeutic agents, including nucleic acids (e.g., mRNA, siRNA). Lipid nanoparticles represent a transformative platform in nanotechnology, particularly in the fields of drug delivery, gene therapy and vaccination. Their unique ability to encapsulate diverse therapeutic agents combined with excellent biocompatibility and targeting potential, makes them a cornerstone of modern nanomedicine (Ghasemiyeh et al., 2018). Continued innovations in lipid chemistry and nanoparticle design are expected to expand their applications even further across medicine and biotechnology.

2.16 Magnetic nanoparticles

Magnetic nanoparticles are versatile and powerful tools in nanotechnology, offering unique advantages in biomedical, environmental, and electronic applications (Avasthi et al., 2020). Their controllable magnetic behavior, biocompatibility, and surface functionality make them especially attractive for targeted therapies, diagnostics, and separation technologies. As nanoscience continues to evolve, the role of MNPs in precision medicine and advanced technologies is expected to expand significantly (Leong et al., 2020). Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are a class of nanomaterials, typically ranging in size from 1 to 100 nanometers that exhibit magnetic properties such as super paramagnetism or ferromagnetism (Chomoucka et al. 2010). These particles are usually composed of magnetic materials like iron oxide (Fe₃O₄), cobalt, nickel, or their alloys, and are often coated with biocompatible or functional materials to enhance stability and enable specific applications. Magnetic nanoparticles, often composed of iron oxide or similar materials, exhibit magnetic behavior and are utilized in a range of biomedical and technological processes (Giustini et al., 2010). These include magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), targeted drug delivery, magnetic hyperthermia therapy, and magnetic separation techniques, data storage, biosensing and diagnostics and environmental applications.

2.17 Quantum Dots

Quantum dots (QDs) represent a powerful tool in nanotechnology due to their customizable optical properties (Li et al., 2019, Sheng et al., 2020). Their role is expected to grow in fields ranging from medicine and renewable energy to advanced electronics and quantum information science.  QDs are nanoscale semiconductor particles, typically ranging from 2 to 10 nanometers in size that exhibit unique optical and electronic properties due to quantum confinement effects (Chawre et al., 2022). At this scale, the motion of electrons and holes is restricted, resulting in discrete energy levels. This leads to size-dependent emission spectra meaning the color of light emitted by a quantum dot can be tuned simply by changing its size (Amani-Ghadimet al., 2019). Quantum dots, a subclass of semiconductor nanoparticles, possess unique optical and electronic features due to quantum confinement effects. Their ability to emit light at precise wavelengths with high quantum yields makes them especially useful in display technologies, LED lighting, biological imaging, and photovoltaic device (Yang et al., 2017, Lan et al., 2014). Recently, Mahala et al.2020, reported ZnO nanosheets decorated with graphite like Carbon Nitride (g-C3N4) QDs as photoanodes for water splitting purpose. QDs are also used for modification of catalyst used for splitting.

3. Techniques for synthesis of Nanoparticles

Nanoparticles are a diverse class of materials characterized by dimensions typically less than 100 nanometers (Walait et al., 2022). They can exhibit various geometries, ranging from one-dimensional (1D) to three-dimensional (3D) structures. Structurally, nanoparticles often consist of three distinct layers: (a) Surface layer – Composed of metal ions, surfactants, or polymers that determine the particles interaction with its environment. (b) Core (inner layer) – The central part of the nanoparticle, typically made of a specific metal or compound that defines its fundamental properties. (c) Shell layer –A chemically and structurally distinct layer surrounding the core, which can modify stability, functionality, or biocompatibility (Mohanraj et al., 2006).Nanostructures are synthesized via two approaches: first bottom-top and second top-down are shown in Figure 2.

Fig-2. Various strategies for synthesis nanoparticles

Table 2.Summary of the experimental techniques that are used for nanoparticlecharacterization.

4. Recent Advances in Nanobiotechnology

Nanocarriers such as liposomes, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles, and micelles have transformed drug delivery by enabling targeted transport, controlled release, and minimized toxicity (Begines et al., 2020). In diagnostics, nanobiotechnology has significantly improved both sensitivity and speed, allowing earlier and more accurate disease detection (Elsabahy et al. 2015). Nanobiosensors, which combine nanomaterials with biological recognition elements, are increasingly used to identify pathogens, toxins, and key biomolecules with high precision (Alcudia et al. 2020). Furthermore, nanocarriers have advanced gene therapy by facilitating efficient delivery of genetic material and enabling precise genome editing techniques. In the realm of the nanostics where diagnosis and therapy are integrated nanoparticles play a dual role by enabling simultaneous imaging and treatment of diseases, particularly in cancer, where they support real-time monitoring and targeted therapy (Table 3) (Rai et al., 2019).

Table 3.Advances techniques for nanotechnology and its applications

5. APPLICATIONS OF NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY

There are numerous uses for nanobiotechnology, including molecular imaging and target-specific drug delivery for diagnostic purposes. The application of nanobiotechnolgy is explained (Figure 3).

5.10 Medicinal Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology holds great promise for advancing medical imaging, cancer treatment, tissue engineering and multifunctional platforms that integrate multiple therapeutic modes (Haleema et al 2023). These techniques have been utilized for developinginnovative methodologies for early disease detection that utilize cost-effective materials and advanced instrumentation (Morrowet al 2007).It has been demonstrated that 25 nm gold nanoparticles conjugated with anti-epidermal growth factor receptor monoclonal antibodies can serve as highly efficient in vivo targeting agents for imaging cancer biomarkers.These gold nanoparticles significantly enhance signal contrast compared to conventional antibody-fluorescent dye conjugates (Reuveni et al 2011 and Alharbi et al 2014, Zou et al 2019).

Fig-3.A Diagram Showing Many Applications of Nanobiotechnology.

(a) Nanoparticle using in Drug Delivery

Nanoparticles are extensively studied nanotechnology tool for drug delivery. These particles are primarily fabricated from lipids and polymers (Jain 2019). Common polymeric materials used in drug formulations include poly (DL-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and poly (ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) (Patraet al 2018). Nanoscale delivery systems enable the administration of drugs with poor compatibility or solubility. For instance, nanosuspensions improve the solubility and bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs, addressing many challenges in pharmaceutical formulation and delivery (Soni et al 2019). Specifically, paclitaxel/chitosan (PTX/CS) nanosuspensions have been proposed as an effective nanodrug delivery strategy for cancer treatment (Joudeh et al 2022, Huang et al 2024).Controlled delivery systems are designed to enhance the therapeutic efficacy and safety of drugs by releasing them at the target site according to the physiological environment's needs, thereby reducing toxicity and side effects (Figure 3 and Table 4). Additionally, coaxial electrospinning is utilized in drug delivery for producing micro and nanotubes, drug or protein-loaded nanofibers, and hybrid core-shell nanofibrous materials (Jain et al. 2008).

Fig-3. Important utility of Nanotechnology in the field of Drug Delivery

Table 4.Categorization of drug delivery methods using nanobiotechnology in cancer

(b) Nanoparticle using in Gene Therapy

Gene therapy is a recently developed approach for treating or preventing genetic disorders by correcting defective genes responsible for disease progression, either through delivering repaired genes or replacing faulty ones (Hongpan et al 2014). Nanotechnology offers a promising alternative to conventional viral vectors by providing nanoscale gene carriers that are potentially less immunogenic. Consequently, the delivery of corrected or replacement genes represents a key area where nanoscale systems can be effectively utilized (Wolf et al 2009).

(c) Nanoparticle-Based Vaccines and Immunotherapies

Nanoparticles have become essential tools in the development of vaccines and immunotherapies, owing to their ability to stabilize antigens, improve delivery efficiency, and trigger strong immune responses. These nanoscale carriers can be tailored to present antigens in a controlled manner, target specific immune cells, and co-deliver adjuvant collectively enhancing the overall effectiveness of vaccines. In immunotherapy, nanoparticles help modulate immune responses by either stimulating immunity against diseases like cancer or suppressing harmful immune activity in autoimmune disorders. A key advantage of nanotechnology lies in its ability to overcome the poor immunogenicity of the tumor microenvironment. By delivering antigens, adjuvants, and therapeutic agents directly to immune cells, nanoparticles can induce precise and effective immune activation. Solid polymer-based nanoparticles are being studied as antigen carriers targeting dendritic cells, offering the potential to fine-tune immune responses. In experimental models, such as vaccinated mice, antigen-specific IgG levels increased up to 100-fold when antigens were either surface-adsorbed or encapsulated within nanoparticles (Rosenberg et al., 2004). These particles also protect antigens from enzymatic degradation and may act as depots, prolonging antigen availability to immune cells (Fan et al., 2015). Nanoparticles also enhance combination therapies, such as immunotherapy with chemotherapy, by increasing treatment efficacy. Their adaptability makes them promising candidates for overcoming challenges in vaccine design and immune-based therapies (Bezbaruah et al., 2022). Ongoing preclinical research targets diseases including hepatitis E virus (HEV), Hepatitis C Virus (HCV), Ebola, malaria, hepatitis B virus (HBV) and human papillomavirus (HPV) some of which, like HPV, already have clinically approved nanoparticle-based vaccines (Sahdev et al., 2014; Jeanbart et al., 2014). Nanotechnology-driven targeting has also transformed cancer immunotherapy, offering precision and improved therapeutic outcomes (Gioacchino et al., 2020).

(d) Nanotechnology in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine

Nanofibers play a significant role in biomedicine, serving as scaffolds in tissue engineering, efficient drug delivery vehicles and components in advanced wound dressings (Chavda et al., 2019; Jain et al., 2007). In addition to incorporating nanoscale surface features into conventional biomaterials, regenerative medicine is increasingly focused on the use of intrinsic nanoscale materials, such as carbon nanotubes. These carbon-based nanostructures, including helical and tubular forms, have been shown to enhance cellular interactions compared to traditional materials (Gomes et al., 2017). Furthermore, the development of sophisticated in vitro models that replicate the physiology of human tissues and organs may eventually reduce or eliminate the need for animal models in drug testing and toxicity assessment (Khang et al., 2010). The primary objective of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine is to develop biological substitutes capable of restoring, maintaining, or improving the function of damaged tissues and organs. Despite the progress made, continued research is essential to discover innovative materials that can overcome the limitations of conventional implants (Zhang et al., 2009).

(e) Biopharmaceuticals

Application of nanotechnology into pharmaceutics helps in the formulation of more advanced drug delivery system and so it is an important and powerful tool as an alternative to conventional dosage form (Malik et al. 2023). Pharmaceutical nanotechnology is a specialized field which will change the fate of pharmaceutical industry in near future. Pharmaceutical nanotechnology helps to fight against several diseases by detecting the antigen associated with diseases and also by detecting micro-organisms and viruses causing the diseases (Biswas et al. 2013). Pharmaceutical nanotechnology has played a very key role to overcome several drawbacks like low bioavailability, poor patient compliance, damage to healthy cells, which were rectified using pharmaceutical nanotechnology (Rizvi et al. 2018). Currently marketed nanostructures include nanocrystals, liposomes and lipid nanoparticles, PEGylated polymeric nanodrugs, other polymers, protein-based nanoparticles and metal based nanoparticles (Farjadian et al. 2019).

(f) Nano-biotechnology in Bioformulation

Nano-biotechnology has revolutionized bioformulation by enabling advanced drug delivery systems and enhancing the effectiveness of bioactive compounds. Using nanoparticles such as liposomes, polymeric carriers, and dendrimers, it allows targeted delivery to specific tissues or cells, improving therapeutic efficacy and minimizing side effects. These nanoformulations are especially valuable in cancer therapy, where they selectively target tumor cells and reduce systemic toxicity (Alavi et al., 2019). Nano-biotechnology also enables controlled and sustained drug release, reducing dosing frequency and enhancing patient compliance. It facilitates the delivery of genetic materials like DNA, siRNA, and mRNA by protecting them from degradation and promoting cellular uptake offering potential treatments for genetic diseases, cancer, and viral infections. In enzyme therapy and industrial applications, nanocarriers stabilize and protect enzymes, enhancing their activity and recyclability (Ghasemiyeh et al., 2018). Moreover, nanoformulations improve solubility and bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs. Multifunctional nanoparticles with both therapeutic and diagnostic roles the nanostics support personalized and precision medicine.

5.12 Nanobiotechnology in Agriculture

Nanobiotechnology is emerging as a promising tool for sustainable agriculture. Certain nanoparticles, due to their unique physicochemical properties, can inherently promote plant growth and enhance stress tolerance. Shifting from simply testing existing nanoparticles to designing tailor-made nanoparticles based on specific agricultural needs will accelerate the effective use of nanotechnology in sustainable farming practices (Ghormade et al.2011). The application of nanoparticles also holds potential to mitigate environmental problems caused by conventional chemical fertilizers and pesticides used in modern agriculture (Yadav et al. 2023). Nanotechnology represents a significant recent innovation with diverse agricultural applications. Fertilizers and soil health enhancers play a crucial role in boosting crop production; however, excessive fertilizer use can irreversibly alter soil chemistry, adversely affecting crop yields. One of the most significant applications is the development of nano-fertilizers. Unlike conventional fertilizers, which often suffer from leaching and inefficient uptake, nano-fertilizers are engineered to release nutrients in a controlled and targeted manner. This increases nutrient use efficiency, reduces environmental pollution, and improves crop yield and quality. Nano-pesticides are another major advancement. These are designed to enhance the stability and effectiveness of active ingredients while minimizing their adverse impact on non-target organisms and ecosystems. By encapsulating pesticides in nanocarriers, it is possible to deliver them precisely where needed, reducing the overall quantity required and lowering the risk of chemical residues in food and soil.In plant disease diagnostics, nanosensors and biosensors can detect pathogens, toxins, or environmental stresses at early stages, allowing for timely intervention. These sensors can be integrated into smart farming systems for real-time monitoring of plant health, soil conditions, and crop development.Similarly, widespread use of agrochemicals like pesticides increases the risk of contaminating food and water sources, posing threats to human and environmental health (Fig. 4) (Babu et al. 2022). In contrast, nanotechnology offers the potential to improve both the quality and quantity of agricultural outputs by enabling precise and intelligent management of inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation (Shang et al. 2019).Nanotechnology is also aiding water purification and irrigation. Nano-materials such as carbon nanotubes and nanofilters can remove contaminants from irrigation water, improving water quality and resource efficiency.Moreover, nanocarriers are being used to deliver genetic material, agrochemicals, or hormones directly to plant cells, improving precision agriculture techniques.

Fig – 4 Application of Nanotechnology in Agriculture Field

5.12 Nanobiotechnology in Food Industry

Nanotechnology is increasingly being utilized in the food industry for a wide range of applications, including targeted delivery of nutrients, flavour enhancement, antimicrobial protection, contamination detection, shelf-life extension, improved food storage, and advanced tracking, tracing, and brand protection. Nanotechnology-enabled food processing techniques can modify the color, flavour, and sensory attributes of food, enhance nutritional content, and eliminate contaminants or toxins.Nano-enabled food packaging materials offer high barrier properties that improve food safety. These advanced materials can alert consumers when food is spoiled or contaminated, self-repair packaging tears, and even release preservatives to extend shelf life. The unique properties of nanoparticlessuch as controlled release of nutrients and nutraceuticals, antimicrobial activity, improved taste, texture, consistency, and heat and mechanical resistance have revolutionized food processing, packaging, storage, and the development of innovative food products (Fig. 5) (Lugani et al. 2021).Traditional food-grade additives like titanium dioxide (TiO, E171) and silica (SiO, E551) are now being used in their nanoscale forms. Nanosilica, for example, is commonly employed in food contact surfaces, packaging, powdered soups, and the clarification of beverages like beer and wine (Thangavel et al. 2014). Among all applications, food packaging is currently the most prominent area for nanotechnology deployment. Incorporating nanoparticles into films and solid packaging materials has been shown to enhance properties such as barrier strength, optical clarity, temperature resistance, flammability, durability and recyclability (Samal, 2017).The application of nanotechnology in the food manufacturing process can be used to enhance flavor and color quality, identify microorganisms in packaging, increase barrier characteristics for safety, and provide benefits not only to food products themselves but also to the environment surrounding them. Indeed, nanotechnology is opening up new avenues for innovation in the food business quickly, but there are also growing uncertainties and health (Thiruvengadam et al. 2018).

Fig-5. Various applications of nanotechnology in food industry

5.13Nanotechnology for Biosurfactants

Biosurfactants are surface active substances that reduce interfacial tension and are produced at the microbial cell surface. The synthesis of rhamnolipid-capped ZnS nanospheres in an aqueous environment without any organic solvent (Munoz et al. 2022). Rhamnolipid capped stable metal nanoparticles could be used to make electronic and optoelectronic devices. Surfactin is a type of lipopeptide produced by Bacilus subtilis. It is considered one of the most powerful biosurfactants, as it is able to reduce surface tension from 72 to 27 mNm^-1 at a concentration as low as 0.005% (Morais et al. 2014). The surfactin effect on the aggregate size of the liposome system, which was carried out by dynamic light scattering measurement. Surfactant was originally obtained from cell-free broth of Bacillus subtilis HS0121.The majority of industrial surfactants are reasonably priced and synthesized (Plaza et al. 2014). Biosurfactants have been used in many food industries.

5.14 Nanobiotechnology for Nanofabrication

Nanofabrication is the process of designing and manufacturing devices and materials at the nanometer scale (Yang et al., 2017).This approach is cost-effective as it enables large-scale production using the same equipment while requiring only small amounts of raw material. Utilizing advanced, state-of-the-art technology, nanofabrication is widely employed in producing microcontrollers, microchips, and various silicon-based components (Walait et al., 2022).Nanofabrication techniques enable the precise construction of materials and devices at the nanoscale, which has transformed many industries by allowing new functionalities and enhanced performance.

5.15 Nanobiotechnology for Sustainable Energy and Fuel Generation

Nanobiotechnology, which merges nanotechnology and biology, is revolutionizing sustainable energy production, fuel generation, and storage. With fossil fuel depletion and growing environmental concerns, there is a global shift toward clean and renewable energy sources. Nanobiotechnology offers eco-friendly solutions by enhancing biofuel production through nanomaterials like nanofibers, nanosheets, metal nanoparticles, and metal oxides (Avasthi et al., 2020). These materials act as catalysts and enzyme carriers, improving the conversion of biomass into bioethanol, biodiesel, and biogas. Immobilizing enzymes on nanoparticles boosts their stability and efficiency, accelerating lignocellulosic biomass breakdown. Nanobiotechnology also enables artificial photosynthesis, where nanostructured materials and biological components convert sunlight into hydrogen (Chomoucka et al.2010). Nanoparticle-enzyme systems and engineered microbes further support hydrogen production via bio-photolysis and fermentation.In energy storage; bimolecular-based nanostructures improve battery and super capacitor performance. Additionally, carbon nanomaterials derived from biological waste support circular, sustainable energy systems. Altogether, nanobiotechnology paves the way for greener, more efficient energy solutions.

5.16 Nanobiotechnology and the Promise of Nanorobots

Nanobiotechnology has advanced the creation of nanorobots—microscopic machines designed to perform tasks at cellular and molecular levels. These nano-devices hold promise for targeted drug delivery, intracellular surgery, and disease diagnosis (Giustini et al., 2010). Capable of identifying and treating diseased cells with precision, nanorobots could transform cancer therapy and personalized medicine (Leong et al., 2020).

5.17Magnetic Nanowires in Nanobiotechnology

Magnetic nanowires, known for their anisotropic magnetic properties and nanoscale size, offer unique advantages in nanobiotechnology (Amani-Ghadim et al., 2019). Unlike spherical nanoparticles, they enable precise control in biomedical applications, including targeted drug delivery and cell manipulation. Nickel nanowires, for instance can be internalized and guided without harming cells, showing excellent biocompatibility (Sheng et al., 2020). Their high magnetic responsiveness also enhances imaging and cell sorting.

5.18 Nanoscale Particles in Molecular Diagnostics

Nanoscale particles have transformed molecular diagnostics by enabling ultra-sensitive and specific detection of biomolecules. Gold nanoparticles offer strong optical signals for rapid, colorimetric detection in disease assays. Magnetic nanoparticles enhance diagnostic precision by enabling magnetic separation and improving MRI contrast. Quantum dots, with stable, size-dependent fluorescence, are ideal for multiplexed and real-time imaging. Together, these nanomaterials provide faster, more accurate and personalized disease diagnostics (Chawre et al., 2022; Li et al., 2019).

5.19 Nanotechnology for Antimicrobial Resistance

Antimicrobial resistance poses a global health threat, making infections increasingly difficult to treat with conventional antibiotics. Nanoparticles offer a promising alternative due to their ability to disrupt multiple microbial pathways, reducing the likelihood of resistance development (Weldick et al., 2022). Metal, metal oxide, and carbon-based nanoparticles exhibit strong antibacterial properties. However, antibiotic-resistant bacteria, often originating from humans and animals, enter aquatic systems and transfer resistance genes to native microorganisms. The coexistence of antibiotics and other emerging contaminants complicates treatment, as current methods are not designed to remove them effectively (Pelgrift et al., 2013; Gupta et al., 2019). Additionally, resistance may still develop in damaged tissues near implants or due to incomplete bacterial clearance (Gebreyohannes et al., 2019). Evaluating how nanotechnologies might contribute to resistance and understanding their toxicological profiles remains crucial (Yılmaz et al., 2023).

5.20 Environmental Nanotechnology

Environmental protection has become a critical global priority, with pollution posing a major threat to ecosystems, biodiversity, and human health (Chaudhary et al. 2013). Common pollutants such as heavy metals, particulate matter, pesticides, oil spills, sewage, fertilizers, and industrial effluents are often difficult to remediate due to their chemical complexity, low reactivity, and persistence in nature (Yamini et al. 2013).Nanotechnology offers a promising solution for addressing these challenges. Nanomaterials, with their high surface-area-to-volume ratio and enhanced reactivity, enable efficient detection, degradation, and removal of contaminants (Walait et al., 2022). Their ability to interact selectively with specific pollutants makes them more effective than conventional materials in environmental applications.With the growing concerns over climate change, pollution, and resource depletion, nanotechnology offers promising, innovative, and sustainable solutions for monitoring, remediation, and protection of the environment (Hidangmayum et al. 2023). Nanomaterials, due to their extremely small size (1–100 nm), high surface area, unique physicochemical properties, and enhanced reactivity, play a crucial role in this field.

(a) Water Purification using Inorganic Nanomaterials

 Nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubesare used for the removal of heavy metals, dyes, microbes, and organic pollutants from contaminated water sources. Carbon-based nanomaterials such as fullerenes (C₆₀), graphene, and carbon nanotubes have unique structures and hybridization states that distinguish them from metal-based nanomaterials. Their large surface area and strong adsorption make them excellent for removing organic and inorganic pollutants from water (Rai et al., 2019). These materials generate hydroxyl radicals under UV light, breaking down toxic compounds like chlorinated organics. When combined with metal oxides like TiO₂, their photocatalytic performance improves significantly (Alcudia et al. 2020). For example, graphene-TiO₂ composites show enhanced conductivity and catalytic activity, while graphene-ZnO or CdS composites can reduce toxic Cr⁶⁺ completely within 20 minutes at low graphene concentrations.Nanoscale zero-valent ironis widely utilized for in-situ remediation of groundwater contaminated with chlorinated organic compounds, nitrates, and arsenic. Silver nanoparticles possess strong antimicrobial properties and are incorporated into filtration membranes to prevent bacterial growth. Nanofiltration membranes enhanced with nanoparticles offer improved mechanical strength, permeability, and resistance to fouling.

(b) Air Pollution Control using inorganic nanomaterials

Nanotechnology provides efficient techniques for controlling air pollution. Nanocatalysts, such as titanium dioxide (TiO₂) and zinc oxide (ZnO), are used in photocatalytic degradation of air pollutants (Sun et al. 2019). Inorganic nanomaterials, including metals and metal oxides, are widely used in environmental remediation due to their high adsorption capacity and fast reaction kinetics. They are effective in both in situ and ex situ aqueous environments. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), especially around 10 nm, are powerful disinfectants with antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral properties (Mao et al., 2019). They can neutralize pathogens like E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and prevent viral infections. Titanium dioxide (TiO₂) is another key nanomaterial that, when activated by light, degrades organic pollutants through photocatalysis. Its ability to produce reactive hydroxyl radicals can be enhanced by doping with metals, improving its efficiency. These nanomaterials can be coated on building surfaces and air filters to break down harmful pollutants under sunlight or artificial light (Rodrigues et al., 2019). Furthermore, nanosensors are capable of detecting airborne toxins and gases at extremely low concentrations, enabling real-time monitoring of air quality.

(c). Soil Remediation using Polymer-Based Nanomaterials

Contaminated soils present serious environmental and health risks. Nanotechnology-based remediation involves the use of materials such as nano-clays to immobilize or degrade hazardous pollutants, including pesticides, petroleum hydrocarbons, and heavy metals. Polymer-based nanomaterials improve strength, reactivity, and stability while overcoming some limits of conventional nanoparticles (Díez-Pascual et al., 2021). Amphiphilic polyurethane nanoparticles (APU NPs) effectively remove aromatic hydrocarbons from soil, thanks to their hydrophobic interiors that attract organic pollutants, achieving up to 80% removal of contaminants like phenanthrene. Dendrimers such as amidoamine (PAMAM) are used in wastewater treatment to chelate heavy metals like Cu, Ag, Au, Fe, and Ni(Elsabahy et al. 2015). These polymer nanomaterials also exhibit antibacterial and antifungal effects, making them valuable for targeting volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and enhancing water purification (Begines et al., 2020)..These nanoparticles penetrate deeper into soil pores compared to conventional materials, offering more efficient and targeted remediation. The addition of nanoparticles to fertilizers and pesticides also enhances their efficiency, minimizing leaching and reducing environmental toxicity.

(c) Environmental Monitoring, Sensing and Management

Nanosensors are highly sensitive devices that detect minute quantities of pollutants in air, water, or soil. These sensors use nanomaterials like gold nanoparticles, carbon quantum dots, or carbon nanotubes to identify toxic chemicals, pathogens, and heavy metals (Lan et al., 2014).The real-time data provided by nanosensors enables early detection and prompt response to environmental threats. Wireless integration of these nanosensors further enhances remote monitoring capabilities for environmental protection.Nanotechnology is also being explored for waste treatment and recycling processes. Nanomaterials can break down hazardous substances in industrial waste streams and enhance the recovery of valuable metals from electronic waste. Nano-adsorbents are particularly effective in capturing pollutants and toxins from waste before disposal. Additionally, nanotechnology is being used in the development of biodegradable materials, reducing long-term environmental pollution (Mohanraj et al., 2006).

5.21 Nanotechnology forBiosensors

Biosensors are widely employed in various stages of drug development, including target identification, validation, assay development, lead optimization, as well as absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity studies (Rahman et al 2025). Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) have been utilized as platforms to study surface-protein and protein-protein interactions and to create highly specific electronic biosensors. These sensors operate by selectively recognizing and binding target proteins through conjugation of their specific receptors to polyethylene oxide-functionalized nanotubes. Coupled with the inherent sensitivity of nanotube-based electronic devices, this approach enables the development of highly specific electronic sensors capable of detecting clinically relevant biomolecules, such as antibodies associated with human autoimmune diseases (Duran et al. 2016).Quantum Dots (QDs) are colloidal semiconducting fluorescent nanoparticles consisting of a semiconducting material core (Cadmium mixed with Selenium or Tellurium), which has been coated with an additional semiconductor shell (usually Zinc Sulphide). Due to their unique size dependent fluorescence properties and photostability, QDs, have been used as labels for DNA probing of genomic DNA and in fluorescent in situ hybridization assays [28-29]. The electrical properties of gold Nanoparticles, were harnesses for development of a piezoelectric biosensor, for real-time detection of a food-borne pathogen (Park, 2014). Electronically gating these sensors can be used to react to a single molecule binding. Prototype sensors have shown the ability to detect ions, proteins, and nucleic acids. Due to the fact that these sensors can function in the liquid and gas phases, a huge range of downstream applications are possible. There is no need for pricey, difficult and time-consuming labeling chemicals like fluorescent dyes or the use of large, expensive optical detection systems because the detection techniques use low-voltage measurement schemes that are inexpensive and directly detect binding events. This makes these sensors portable and low-cost to produce. Based on these detectors, implantable detection and monitoring devices might possibly be developed (Sargazi et al 2022).

6. Toxicity Effect

Due to their extremely small size and unique physicochemical properties, nanoparticles offer distinct advantages but may also pose health risks similar to those associated with particulate matter (Kreylinget al. 2006). These particles have the potential to induce various pathological effects on the respiratory, cardiovascular, and gastrointestinal systems (Kreylinget al. 2024). Notably, nanoparticles can enter the central nervous system either directly via the axons of the olfactory pathway or indirectly through systemic circulation via the olfactory bulb. Studies in monkeys and rats have demonstrated the accumulation of carbon and manganese nanoparticles in the olfactory bulb, indicating that nanoparticles can bypass the blood-brain barrier via this route (Zia et al. 2024).

While this mechanism presents a promising alternative for targeted drug delivery to the brain, it also raises concerns about potential neuro-inflammatory responses, which require thorough investigation (Zha et al. 2024). Furthermore, in vitro studies have shown that carbon nanotubes can promote platelet aggregation and accelerate vascular thrombosis in animal models. In contrast, fullerenes do not exhibit pro-aggregatory effects, suggesting that they may represent a safer option for nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems compared to nanotubes (Radomskiet al. 2005). Although numerous in vitro and animal studies have been conducted to assess nanoparticle toxicity, their safe application in human systems remains an area that demands further comprehensive research.The usage of capping and stabilizing chemicals during the creation of nanomaterials and nanoparticles derived from microorganisms and microbial products can be minimized. In one work, the exopolysaccharidematrix of biofilm produced from Lysin bacillus sphaericus was used to create magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles. With several binding sites for multiple metal ions, this matrix functions as a far superior reducing, stabilizing and capping agent (Awashra et al. 2023, Ameenet al. 2021).

7. Challenges in Nanobiotechnology

Nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology and cognitive sciences together form a group of disciplines known as convergent technologies. The integration of these dynamic compounds into nanocarriers with improved stability represents the ultimate challenge for nanobiotechnology (Fatehiet al. 2011). Maintaining public health and safety, upholding social values, and preventing needless scientific advancement are all important challenges in the development of nanobiotechnology supervision. With the potential to both significantly benefit human health and the environment and cause serious harm, the task of striking a balance between these conflicting concerns is particularly pressing in the context of nanobiotechnology. The wide spectrum of nanomaterials and nanoproducts in development and on the market presents agencies with capacity-related difficulties as well (Usman et al. 2020 and Madhwani, 2013). Regulators should shed light on the assessment of potential dangers related to nano drug delivery for biomolecules in addition to the need to evaluate risks to the environment and human health. Nanobiotechnology commercialization faces a number of difficulties, such as funding, scalability, innovative efficacy, patience and limited resources. Proper regulation for these technological advancements is also lacking. Bio therapeutics are extensively used in the biotechnology industry because they are highly target specific, powerful, and have fewer adverse effects than conventional chemicals and technologies (Farjadian et al. 2019).

8. Future Aspects

Future developments in therapeutic and diagnostic approaches appear to have significant implications for nanomedicine. Various innovative approaches, such as surface functionalization of materials, polymeric films containing distinct groups of antibiotics, antioxidants, stem cells, nanoparticles and natural products have been employed to intentionally target therapeutic activity in the accessible dressings. Biosensors are one application for carbon nanotubes. Devices for protein analysis are described. For the purpose of studying cell function and visualizing biochemical processes, protein photo switches and markers have been reported. Chemistry of polynucleotides is being investigated to develop biosensors, scaffolds, nanorobots and microarray diagnostics. The problem with utilizing metal-based nanoparticles like gold and silver nanoparticles for drug delivery is that they have to be site-specific, biocompatible, and bioadaptable. Targeting diseased body areas and breaking through the circulatory barrier without harming other organs is another difficulty. The development of diagnostic-treatment linkages will be significantly aided by nanobiotechnology in the coming years.

9. Conclusion

Nanobiotechnology offers wide applications in medicine, food, biosensors, bioagriculture and biopharmaceuticals. Different types of nanoparticles have been using in diverse area.The potential benefits of nanobiotechnology in medicine are endless. Nanobiotechnology is helpful in monitoring, repairing systems at the molecular level of human biological systems. The development of trustworthy diagnostic techniques and the monitoring and diagnosis of many diseases are made possible by nanobiotechnology. Biological macromolecules and nanobiotechnology are the primary focus of modern molecular diagnostics and their interaction with therapies. Future therapeutic development may benefit greatly from the application of nanomedicine. Public awareness can be raised through nanotechnology. The development of functional foods, nutrient delivery methods, food packaging, color, flavor and consistency and the detection of nano-based nutrients and metabolites structure have received increased funding from numerous government agencies. According to the specifications given above, nanofoods would be created by utilizing nanotechnology tools and methods for food quality control, processing, packing and growing.