Exploring The Versatility of Plant Fibers: A Comprehensive Review on Biomedical Applications

¹Neha Mandle, ²Deleshwar Kumar^*

¹Shri Shankaracharya College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bhilai

^2*Kamla Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bhilai

ABSTRACT:

Flex, jute, cotton, hemp, banana, and phormium are examples of plant-based fibers that are frequently employed in pharmaceutical applications. The production of natural fibers uses 60% less energy than the production of glass fibers. Discussions regarding natural plant fibers’ history, structure, composition, kinds, and biomedical applications are included in this overview. For the same performance, natural plant fiber has larger fiber contents, which reduces the need for more polluting polymer components. This paper discusses the usage of plant-based fibers and their applications in biomedicine while also considering prospective future research focused on environmentally friendly biomedical uses or applications.

Keywords: Fibers, Plant-Based Fibers, Biomedical uses, Applications.

INTRODUCTION:

Fibers are thread-like structures with continuous or discrete filament phases. Natural fibers offer countless benefits in terms of sustainability and environmental friendliness. Interest in researching natural fibers has recently increased due to the need for alternatives to the use of synthetic fibers. The main advantages of natural fibers are biodegradability, lightweight and low density. Inexpensive reinforcements made from recycled natural fibers as an alternative to synthetics include flax, jute, ramie, hemp, banana, etc. [Chabba et al., 2005]

Natural fibers are abundant and inexpensive materials with advantages such as low density, high toughness, relatively high specific strength/stiffness properties, low abrasion, low energy consumption during manufacturing, and carbon neutrality. These possessions have led to research into replacing synthetic fibers with natural ones. [Islam MS, Church JS 2011].

Plant fibers are also known as lignocellulose fibers, as they are composed of cellulose fibers and a lignin matrix. [Lee SM 1992] Generally, the natural fibers used in composites are lignocellulose: sisal, flax, hemp, jute, bamboo, kenaf, and wood fibers. Mineral-based fibers, on the other hand, are mostly composed of asbestos. The fibers rarely exceed a few centimeters and are completely crystalline, unlike plant and animal fibers. [Satyanarayana K, Sukumaran K 1990].

HISTORY:

Plant fibers are an integral part of the "weave" of human history. Its use in ropes and clothing dates back tens of thousands of years [Kvavadze et al., 2009]. The first fibers produced were natural fibers. Cotton, wool, silk, and all other plant and animal fibers fall into this category. These fibers were first introduced 4000 years ago, but their use continued until the 1940s. All these fibers are known as first-generation fibers. Of the latter, flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) and hemp (Cannabis sativa), originally cultivated by advanced civilizations in the Fertile Crescent, are now the two most commonly produced vegetable fibers in Europe [Bourmaud et al. al., 2018]. Over time, their possible applications have expanded and have been of interest for two decades, especially in the field of technical materials in the form of plant fiber composites. Plant fiber-reinforced composites are an important development in various industries. emerging as an area. This is especially true in the areas of transportation, shipping, and construction. These fibers have important environmental benefits, and excellent specific mechanical properties, and are often available at affordable prices [Bourmaud et al., 2018]. They offer a reliable alternative to synthetic fibers such as fiberglass for semi-structural applications.

                                               Fig: Schematic Structure of Plant Fiber

 The use of natural fibers has evolved significantly over the last decade. [Jane et al.2016] Natural fibers represent the economy, manageable processing, and renewable raw materials. Natural fibers can be divided into plant fibers, animal fibers, and mineral fibers. Plant fibers can be further classified into bast fibers, leaf fibers, wood fibers, fruit fibers, seed fibers, straw fibers, and grass fibers.

Fig: Classification of Natural Fibers

Natural fibers consist of the ones created or current in fibrous shape and produced with the aid of using plants, animals, and geological processes. [Kadolph, Sara, 2002] They may be labeled in keeping with their origin. Plant fibers are typically primarily based totally on cellulose aggregates containing lignin. Examples consist of cotton, hemp, jute, flax, abaca, pina, ramie, sisal, bagasse, and banana. Plant fibers are used withinside the manufacture of paper and textiles (fabrics) and fiber is a crucial part of the human diet. Wood fiber, not like vegetable fiber, comes from trees. Forms consist of groundwood, tip bark, thermomechanical pulp (TMP), and bleached or unbleached kraft or sulfite pulp. Kraft and sulfite seek advice from a form of pulping manner used to cast off the lignin that binds the unique timber shape together, liberating the fibers to be used in engineered timber merchandise which includes paper and fiberboard.

Animal fibers are typically composed of unique proteins. Examples consist of silk, spider silk, sinew, gut, wool, sea silk, hair which includes cashmere, mohair, angora, and fur which includes sheepskin, rabbit, mink, fox, and beaver. Mineral fibers belong to the asbestos group. Asbestos is the best certainly taking place lengthy mineral fiber. Six minerals had been labeled as 'asbestos', such as the ones belonging to the serpentine magnificence chrysotile and the amphibole magnificence: amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite, and actinolite. Short, fibrous minerals consist of Wollastonite and Playworker.

Biofibers, additionally known as fibrous proteins or protein filaments, are composed of biologically applicable and biologically vital proteins whose mutations or different genetic defects can result in critical diseases. can be connected. Examples consist of collagen’s own circle of relatives of proteins [Saad, Mohamed, 1994] muscle proteins which include tendons and actin, and cell proteins which include microtubules, spider silk, tendons, hair, and plenty of others.

FIBER TYPE: Fibers derived from bast stems, leaves, and fruits are called fiber bundles because they are naturally organized into bundles, whereas those derived from seeds are single-celled and are called fibers [Farnfield, C. 1975]. The process of separating fiber bundles from raffia stems and leaves is very similar. Seed fibers, especially fluff, are separated from the seeds by the cotton ginning process, whereas kapok fibers are loosely held in the seeds and are separated by shaking. Skinning and roasting techniques are commonly used. [Vincent, JF 2000]. The bundle size depends on the severity of the process. A peeler is a machine used to remove bundles of fibers from stems and leaves. The leaves are shredded and beaten on a rotating wheelset with a blunt knife, leaving only the fibers. The rest of the leaves are washed off with water. The decorated fabric is washed before drying in the sun or hot air. The dry fibers are combed and sorted into different qualities.

SEED FIBER: Among natural fibers, cotton fiber is a highly studied natural fiber. The source of cotton fiber is the seed of the plant, commonly known as seed fiber. Cotton fibers belong to the genus Gossypium. Cotton fibers are rich in cellulose. The composition of 90% of cotton fibers contains cellulose. The characteristics of cotton fibers are that they are absorbent, light and soft. The main uses of cotton fiber are textiles, textiles, fishing nets, etc. Other seed-based fibers include pine cones, kapok, loofah, and rapeseed [Pinheiro et al., 2020].  

BAST FIBER: Members of the bast fiber are flax, jute, ramie, kenaf, hemp, mesta, and roselle. Hemp fiber is taken into consideration as one of the most powerful fibers withinside the bast fiber family. Hemp fiber is derived from hashish seeds. The cellulose composition of hemp fiber is set at 70%. Ramie fiber is an excessive overall performance and sturdy bast fiber with excessive cellulose content. Ramie fiber is likewise known as China grass, grass linen, grass cloth, and porcelain linen. The sturdiness and power of ramie fibers facilitate their use in commercial stitching threads, packaging materials, fishing nets, and clear-out cloths. [Jain et al., 2016].

GRASS FIBERS: Grass fibers are bamboo, bagasse, corn, mackerel, and canary. Bamboo fiber comes from the bamboo plant, which belongs to the bamboo family. Bamboo fibers have large micro-gaps that reason for better absorption quality. The residences of bamboo fiber are antibacterial, hygroscopic, and UV resistant.

FRUIT FIBER: Coconut fiber and oil palm fiber correspond to fruit fiber. Coconut or coconut fiber is received from the coconut shell. Coconut fiber belongs to the Coccus Nucifera family. The residences of coconut fiber are long-lasting and inexpensive. Palm oil fiber, additionally called lignocellulose fiber, belongs to the sugarcane family. The fiber reasserts of oil palm are the fruit mesocarp and empty fruit mass of oil palm.

LEAF FIBERS: The fibers obtained from leaves include sisal, banana, abaca, pineapple, Henke, and agave. Of particular interest, banana fibers, which are lignocellulose fibers, are extracted from the pseudostems of banana plants. These fibers exhibit notable mechanical properties. [Drahansky et al., 2016]. Banana pseudo strain may be used to provide sea rope, coffee, tea bags, clean cloth, and coffee-density textiles.

WOOD FIBER: Wood fiber can be classified into two main types: softwood fiber and hardwood fiber. The primary components of wood fibers include lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose, and extracts. These components are essential in the papermaking process. Both softwood and hardwood fibers play crucial roles in the production of high-quality paper products.

SOME EXAMPLES OF PLANT-BASED FIBERS:

ABACA FIBER: abaca mask is potent in absorbing nearly 3% to 5% of total water applied, while N95 and surgical masks absorbed 46% and 0.17% respectively. Essentially, the abaca masks repel water far better than an N95 mask and are considered to be extremely safe for use.

(A) Abaca Tree                                                     (B) Abaca Fiber

                                                              (C)Abaca based Mask

BANANA FIBER: Banana fiber Musa paradiisiaca L. var Sapientum or Musa ulugurensis Warb. is the most cultivated banana plant. The word banana comes from Arabic and it means ‘finger’ [Al-Qureshi 1999]. There are about 300 species of banana and about 20 are used for consumption. In order to obtain the best fiber, the plants are cut when they are almost at the flowering stage, before any fruit has formed. The separation process is done manually and it involves cutting pieces of banana from the stem and passing them through a mangle to remove excess moisture (water), and combing and drying at ambient temperature. The fiber obtained is usually of low quality because the separation of the fiber bundles is done either after the fruits have just developed or when they have ripened ready for food purposes. Banana fibers can be used as a natural absorbent, and bioremediation agent for bacteria in natural water purifiers, for mushroom production, they are also used in the making of handicrafts, quality paper cards, tea bags, string thread, high-quality fabric material, paper for currency notes and good rope for tying purpose.

BAMBOO FIBER: It includes bandages, masks, surgical clothes, nurse swears, and so on. The bamboo fiber has a natural effect of sterilization and bacteriostatic and therefore it has an incomparably wide foreground on the application in sanitary materials such as sanitary towels, gauze masks, absorbent pads, food packing, and so on. In the medical scope, it can be processed into the products of bamboo fiber gauze, operating coats and nurse dresses, etc. [S. Kathiresan2011] Because of the natural antibiosis function of the bamboo fiber the finished products need no addition of any artificial synthesized antimicrobial agent.

    Bamboo Plant                              Processed into Fiber                          Woven into Fabric

COTTON FIBER: The physical characteristics of cotton fiber are the most interesting. It has layer arrangements, as is the case with all plant fibers, but its unique helical fibril winding formation distinguishes it from other fibers. The winding formation of the fibril along the major axis tends to have an alternate reversal direction as it winds along the fiber axis [Ashby, M.F 1965, Joseph, S. 2002]. The lumen of mature cotton fiber is filled with protoplasm. Cotton and its derivate are widely studied and used as a medical and biomedical product in the “Health care textile” aria. The cotton-based materials have been used in external (surgical clothing, surgical covers, and beddings) and internal (traditional and advanced wound dressing, tissue engineering, drug delivery, surgical area, and dental applications) applications. [Mina Shahriar, Bugolobi Ishaq 2020] For use in the internal application, the biomaterials have to pass many in vitro and in vivo tests due to the final application.

FLEX FIBER: Flax, scientifically known as Linum usitatissimum, is an extraordinary plant renowned for its nutritional value. It serves as a valuable source of essential unsaturated fatty acids, including omega-3 and omega-6, as well as significant amounts of dietary fiber and various essential nutrients. Comprising 41% fat, 20% protein, and 28% dietary fiber, flax holds a well-balanced nutritional profile. Moreover, the antimicrobial activity inherent in a flax fabric dressing has sparked considerable interest within the medical community. This is particularly pertinent in clinical practice, where the prevalence of infections in long-term wounds underscores the potential significance of leveraging flax-based materials to mitigate microbial colonization and subsequent infections. [Magdalena Czemplik, Aleksandra Boba 2011] Very often this is caused by antibiotic-resistant bacterial and fungal strains, so new ways to combat microbiological infections are needed. These results show that linen dressings obtained from GM flax have beneficial effects on wound healing and can be used as an innovative flax biotechnological product.

HEMP: Hemp fiber is a versatile natural material that is used for a variety of purposes. It has been traditionally used to address issues such as constipation, high cholesterol, eczema, and arthritis. However, it's important to note that there is limited scientific evidence to fully support these uses. It is crucial not to confuse hemp with other related substances such as Canadian hemp, hemp agrimony, cannabis, or cannabidiol (CBD). The process of obtaining hemp fiber involves a method called decortication, where the fiber bundles are separated from the hemp stem. This can be achieved by either cutting or pulling the plant from the ground. Following this, the cut plant undergoes a process known as retting, during which microorganisms release enzymes to break down non-cellulose materials, particularly pectin, which helps to free the fiber bundles from the plant's structure. [Sharma, H. S. S. 1987]. The fibrous bark from the hemp plant can be utilized in a multitude of ways. It can be spun into durable threads, used to make strong ropes, woven into various fabrics, carpets, and even shoes. Additionally, it can be transformed into canvas for artistic purposes. Furthermore, the inner core of the hemp stalk, also known as hurd, has versatile applications. It can be processed to create eco-friendly, dioxin-free paper and pulp, as well as utilized in the production of charcoal, methanol, and methane. These biomass fuels offer a clean alternative to traditional fossil fuels, as they are largely free from the pollutants typically generated by their combustion.

JUTE: Jute, a versatile fiber, is derived from several species of the Corchorus plant, numbering around 100. Currently, it stands as the most cost-effective bast fiber with the highest levels of production. The optimal conditions for jute growth are found in countries such as Bangladesh, India, and China. Jute is an annual plant thriving in regions with a monsoon climate, reaching heights between 2.5 and 4.5 meters. Additionally, jute-based thermoplastic matrix composites have gained significant traction in the automotive door panel industry in Germany. [Summerscales J, Dissanayake NPJ 2001].

KAPOK: Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) is reported to occur wild in the American tropics and in evergreen, moist, semi-deciduous, and gallery forests of West Africa. Kapok is said to have reached Java by the 10th century and it is the Arab traders who took Kapok from West Africa to India and the Far East. Barker [Baker, HG 1965] identified three varieties namely; Var. caribaea, Var. guineensis and Var. pentandara synonymous with Var. indican (DC) Bakh. Var. pentandra is a natural hybrid between Var. Caribbean and Var. guineensis [Purseglove, J.W. 1997]]. It is reported that by 1959 India, Kenya, Tanzania, and Thailand exported nearly 12,000 tonnes of kapok fiber [Kirby, R. H 1963]. kapok fiber is used as stuffing for bedding, upholstery, life preservers, and other water-safety equipment because of its excellent buoyancy [Zhang et al., 2013], and for insulation against sound and heat because of its air-filled lumen. it is also used as stuffing for pillows, mattresses, and upholstery, as insulation material, and as a substitute for absorbent cotton in surgery.

PHORMIUM: Phormium, also known as New Zealand flax, is a versatile natural resource. When carefully processed, it yields a creamy white fiber that is both flexible and exhibits fair strength, while also possessing a good luster. One of its remarkable properties is its resistance to damage in saltwater environments. As a result, it is commonly used in the production of twines and ropes, as well as in the creation of bagging fabrics, mats, and shoe soles. Additionally, phormium has applications in the medical field, where it is utilized as an antiseptic for treating wounds and burns.

RAMIE: Ramie, a natural fiber, serves a wide range of purposes. It is utilized in the production of industrial sewing thread, packing materials, fishing nets, and filter cloths. Additionally, ramie is a key component in the manufacturing of fabrics for various household furnishings and clothing. These fabrics often consist of blends with other textile fibers to enhance their properties. Moreover, the shorter fibers and waste materials of ramie find application in the paper manufacturing industry.

SISAL: Sisal fiber, extracted from the leaves of the agave sisalana plant, has been traditionally employed for various purposes. It is commonly utilized in the manufacture of rope, twine, paper, cloth, footwear, hats, bags, carpets, geotextiles, and dartboards due to its durability and strength. Additionally, sisal fiber serves as a crucial component in reinforcing composite materials like fiberglass, rubber, and concrete products, enhancing their structural integrity and performance.

Table: Some Fiber types their botanical name, plant origin family, and Applications

Table: Chemical constituents of some plants.

APPLICATIONS: Almost all fibers have comparable traditional give up makes use of classified into 3 agencies specifically apparel, household, and commercial. Apparel programs are clothes or garb wherein cotton fiber dominates the market, accompanied by flax, hemp, and to positive volume kapok while in blends with cotton fiber. Household programs are curtains, upholstery, mattresses, quilts, coir, and nearly all seed, leaf, and bast fibers are used in this class besides bamboo fiber. Except for kapok fiber, all of the fibers are used as commercial substances, and the maximum not unusual place of those who give up make use of our rope, shoes, sacks, carpets, fishing nets, paper, and paper felts. In the last 20 years, there has been tremendous interest in the use of natural fibers as reinforcement for polymeric materials.

BIOPLASTICS: In recent years, there has been a significant rise in the utilization of natural fibers in bio-composites across various industries. These natural fibers can be sourced from sub-products or agricultural industry disposals, making them an environmentally friendly and sustainable choice. One of the key advantages of natural fibers is their ecological nature, as well as their low cost, low energy consumption, and abundance. Furthermore, natural fibers are renewable and offer a wide variety of options, making them a versatile and eco-conscious choice for different applications. Their use in composite materials not only helps in cost reduction but also enhances the overall properties of the compounds while demonstrating respect for the environment.

HEALTH BENEFITS: Natural organic fibers, such as cotton and wool, have not been found to be associated with the adverse health effects commonly linked to inorganic fibers, such as mesothelioma, lung cancer, and lung fibrosis. The potential irritative effects of natural organic fibers do not appear to be related to their fibrous shape. Dietary fiber, which is found in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and legumes, plays a crucial role in promoting digestive health. It increases the bulk and softness of stool, making it easier to pass and reducing the risk of constipation. Moreover, a high-fiber diet may contribute to a decreased risk of developing hemorrhoids and diverticular disease. Studies have suggested that a diet high in fiber could potentially lower the risk of colorectal cancer. Additionally, some types of fiber are fermented in the colon, and soluble fiber, in particular, can help regulate blood sugar levels, making it beneficial for individuals with diabetes. Foods rich in soluble fiber, such as beans, oats, flaxseed, and oat bran, may also aid in lowering overall blood cholesterol levels by reducing levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol.

ANTI-CANCER: Research on cancers of the esophagus, mouth, pharynx, stomach, rectum, endometrium, and ovary has yielded limited results, with most studies indicating a protective effect from consuming a diet high in fiber-containing foods. The epidemiologic studies examined in previous research primarily analyze dietary patterns in which fiber-rich foods are typically consumed alongside other foods and food components. This makes it challenging to definitively determine whether the observed protection is solely due to fiber or if it is influenced by other dietary components, such as low fat.

BIOCOMPOSITES: Today, natural fibers are increasingly favored for use in composite manufacturing due to their sustainable properties. Plant fibers, in particular, are being utilized as a replacement for synthetic fibers in composite materials. These natural fibers are employed in the production of various biocomposites, further contributing to the advancement of sustainable and eco-friendly manufacturing practices.

PREBIOTICS: The available evidence on the health effects of prebiotic intake is currently not as extensive as that for dietary fiber. However, some studies have suggested that consuming prebiotics may help lower the occurrence and duration of infectious and antibiotic-associated diarrhea. Additionally, prebiotic intake may have potential benefits in reducing inflammation and alleviating symptoms associated with inflammatory bowel disease. There is also evidence to suggest that prebiotics could play a protective role in reducing the risk of colon cancer. Furthermore, prebiotics may contribute to improved absorption of essential minerals such as calcium, magnesium, and potentially iron.

CONCLUSION: The large amount of information on plant fibers makes it difficult to cover every type in a single article. This paper will focus on the most commercially significant fibers. Plant fibers have many benefits for biomedical applications, including cost-effectiveness, lightweight properties, environmental friendliness, biodegradability, and improved durability compared to matrices. However, it's important to note that plant fibers can be affected by photochemical degradation and moisture absorption when exposed to UV radiation.

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